Revelation 6

And when the Lamb had opened one of the seven seals, I heard one of the four living creatures, as it were the voice of a great thunder, saying: Come, and see. The opening of a seal is the revelation of a mystery. Now since there is not one, but many mysteries, and it would be long to speak about every one of them individually, all of them can be encompassed in three kinds, namely one kind pertaining to speech, one pertaining to cognition, and one pertaining to action. Speech includes in itself all commandments. Cognition, when applied according to the rules, teaches us the forms of understanding. As for action, it is in harmony with both. After one of the seven seals has been opened, one of the four living creatures invites John, in the manner of a great thunder, to come and see, because, after the truth has been manifested, the Church that precedes, consisting of the apostles, calls to faith the one that follows.

QUESTION: And I saw that the Lamb had opened one of the seals. ANSWER: Since you first loose the seals before opening a book, he has reversed the normal order for a certain reason. When the Lord suffered and was resurrected, he informed us that he was the end of the law, and when he went up to heaven and sent the Holy Spirit, he strengthened the Church with the gift of a more secret mystery. Therefore he opened the book then, and now he is loosing its seals. So, in the first seal, John sees the honor of the primitive Church; in the following three, the threefold war against the Church; in the fifth, the glory of the winners in this war; in the sixth, the things that are to come in the time of the Antichrist; and, after recapitulating previous events a bit, in the seventh, he sees the beginning of eternal rest.

Indeed, here is indicated the good order of those in heaven, which descends from the first ranks to the second. And therefore from one figure of the four-formed living creatures, namely, from the lion, he heard the first voice that gave the command, "Come!" to the angel who mystically symbolizes the vision. The first living creature, the lion, seems to me to signify the royal intention of the apostles against the demons. Concerning them it is said, "Behold, the kings of the earth have gathered together." And again: "You will establish them as rulers over all the earth."

And I saw when the Lamb had opened one of the seals. Since the signs are first loosened and then the book is opened, He wisely reversed the usual order. For the Lord, by suffering and rising again, taught that He is the end of the law. And ascending into heaven, sending the Holy Spirit, He strengthened the Church with the gift of a more secret mystery. Therefore, He opened the book then, and now He loosens its seals. In the first seal, the glory of the primitive Church; in the following three, the threefold war against her; in the fifth, the glory of those who triumphed in this war; in the sixth, those things that will come in the time of the Antichrist, with a brief recapitulation of the previous ones; in the seventh, he sees the beginning of eternal rest.

And I heard one of the four living creatures saying: Come and see. We too are admonished with great voices of the Gospel to behold the glory of the Church.

Next follows the opening of the seals, which must be believed to refer only to the opening of the divine Scriptures. For even the things that are said to have been done under the openings of the seals refer to the opening of the Old and New Testaments. And just as the whole body of the elect consists of seven parts, so there are seven seals, which correspond to each part, to show those things that are obscurely set down in the divine Scriptures, or what the deeds of the holy fathers signify. The opening of the first seal, then, refers to the things that were done before the Flood; the second seal to the patriarchs; the third to those who were under the Law; the fourth to the prophets; and the three openings that remain refer to the New Testament. The fifth opening refers to the martyrs; the sixth to the casting down of the Jews and the calling of the Gentiles; the seventh refers to the coming of Christ. And why the coming of the Lord is placed in the seventh place we shall say in what follows. But we must ask why the opening of the Old Testament is prefigured through the vision of four horsemen; for the horseman is, on the part of the horse, irrational, but on the part of the rider is recognized as rational. Likewise, certain legal precepts, on the side of the letter, are irrational, but on the side of allegory are shown to be very rational.

And I saw when the Lamb opened one of the seven seals.

The opening of the first seal, as was said above, refers to the things that were done before the Flood. Therefore the Lamb opened the first seal when, by the grace of the Holy Spirit, he made known to the teachers of the Church how the events that took place before the Flood are to be understood spiritually. And so that we may show more fully what the opening of the seals is, let us say a little about the opening of each seal. In Genesis it is written that God planted a paradise of delight, in which he placed the man whom he had formed, which is described as being planted with various trees (Gen. 2:8). By the paradise, therefore, the Church is indicated; by the trees of paradise, on the other hand, the teachers of the Church are signified. And just as the trees of paradise supplied the first humans with the nourishment of their fruits, so the teachers of the Church do not cease to provide the nourishment of divine words to the souls of the faithful established in the Church. We have spoken above about the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. But the fountain that went out from the midst of paradise signified the Gospel, which springs up in the midst of the holy Church. This was then divided into four heads, because the teaching of the Gospel is divided into four books and goes around all the boundaries of the earth.

For Adam also prefigured Christ, and Eve the Church: and just as Eve was made from the side of the man while he slept, so also the Church was fashioned from the side of Christ as he hung upon the cross; because by his blood she was redeemed and cleansed from defilements. Two sons were born to Adam, Cain and Abel: Cain signified the people of the Jews; Abel, however, signified Christ. Cain offered to the Lord gifts from the fruits of the earth; for the people of the Jews, who were earthly, offered earthly gifts, that is, first-fruits, tithes, sacrifices, and the other things commanded in the Law; but Abel offered from the firstborn of his flock and from their fat. The firstborn of the flock are the apostles, whom the Church first brought forth, and from whom the Church was born; the fat, however, is the faith of the apostles. Abel therefore offered from the firstborn of his flock and from their fat, because Christ offered to God the Father the apostles whom he had chosen from the world, and their faith. Cain, led by envy because the Lord had regard for Abel and for his gifts, killed him; likewise the Jews, seeing the signs that Christ worked by his own power and that of the Father, killed him, who was their brother according to the flesh. God cursed Cain because he had killed his brother Abel, and told him that he would be a wanderer and a fugitive upon the earth. Similarly the Jews are cursed not only by God, but by themselves, when they said of Christ: “His blood be upon us and upon our children” (Matt. 27:25). And they are wanderers and fugitives upon the earth, because, having no settled homeland of their own, they roam among all nations. Of the opening, then, of the first seal, let what has been said be enough.

I heard one of the four living creatures saying: Come and see.

The first living creature has the same meaning as the second, the third, and the fourth; for they signify the teachers of the Church. But when it says: Come and see, it urges us toward spiritual understanding, as if it were saying: Come, not with the steps of the body, but with the steps of the mind; and understand in a spiritual way the things which you have read as having been done historically in the earliest time.

The lamb opened one of the seven seals—He wants to give this notice about future time.

The closing and sealing of the little scroll, which contains the names of the people written in it, signifies that it is unalterable, and that their mouths are shut from any justification before God, according to what has been previously stated (Rev. 5:1). Therefore, the gradual removal of the seals signifies the gradual repetition of the boldness and intimacy toward God, which the only begotten One, having become incarnate, has made possible for us by correcting our shortcomings through His own deeds. It must be understood that the breaking of each seal signifies one of the acts performed by the Lord for our salvation, and also those carried out by Him against the spiritual enemies of our souls. For the Lord's providence toward us involves the overthrow of those powers.

Let no one be amazed at those things that will happen, that the Only Begotten existed before becoming incarnate; for the works and deeds before His coming to us are shown to the divine evangelist through vision. Yet, He appears as a Lamb in the revelation, as if slain.

For it is customary that what is seen by the prophets serves as a pre-announcement of things to come. Therefore, a man long ago contended with Jacob (Gen. 32:24), a type of Christ; thus, Isaiah saw the prophetess conceiving in her womb and bearing a son, whose name is also called, "Despoil Quickly, Plunder Rapidly." (Isa. 8:3) Thus Daniel saw the Son of Man, still without flesh, God, the Word coming to the Ancient of Days. (Dan. 7:13)

Therefore, the first blessing, which pertains to our race through our Savior Christ, is the one that opened the first seal of the little scroll and established the beginning of leading us back to where we came from, out of the transgression in Adam, and to recover for us the lost relationship with God and to transfer our previously forbidden access into boldness. This is the bodily birth established by the Lord, which sanctified our birth so that we are no longer conceived in lawlessness and carried in sins by our mothers, but we have a holy birth of Christ through our own birth, by which the human birth is blessed. And a witness to such a noble ambition toward humanity is the divine apostle, who writes: "since your children are unclean, but now they are holy." (1 Cor. 7:14)

When the first seal was opened, he said he saw a white horse coming forth from those spiritual holy beings, holding a bow; and a crown was given to him, and he went out conquering so that he might conquer. A white horse serves as a symbol of the Gospel, representing the good will to be bestowed upon humanity. The crown, on the other hand, signifies power and victory. It came forth bearing the crown with Christ, as the one who began to conquer the Devil who had enslaved our race. It is said that He came forth so that the one who conquers may be victorious. Christ was the one who conquers, so that he may conquer completely, and the symbol of victory he bore was the crown. This is the first seal.

He said, "I heard one of the four animals say, 'Come and see.' " This one animal is the whole church preaching with a great voice and inviting the church to greater faith, "Come and see!" "If anyone thirsts, let him come and drink." "Approach him and you will be illuminated." "Arise, you who sleep, arise from the dead, and Christ will illuminate you."

"And when the Lamb had opened one of the seven seals, I saw, and heard one of the four living creatures saying, Come and see. And, lo, a white horse, and He who sate upon him had a bow." The first seal being opened, he says that he saw a white horse, and a crowned horseman having a bow. For this was at first done by Himself. For after the Lord ascended into heaven and opened all things, He sent the Holy Spirit, whose words the preachers sent forth as arrows reaching to the human heart, that they might overcome unbelief. And the crown on the head is promised to the preachers by the Holy Spirit. The other three horses very plainly signify the wars, famines, and pestilences announced by our Lord in the Gospel. And thus he says that one of the four living creatures said (because all four are one), "Come and see." "Come" is said to him that is invited to faith; "see" is said to him who saw not. Therefore the white horse is the word of preaching with the Holy Spirit sent into the world. For the Lord says, "This Gospel shall be preached throughout the whole world for a testimony to all nations, and then shall come the end."

And behold a white horse, and he that sat on him had a bow. By the white horse is represented Christ's humanity, free of all dark stain of sin, which the Father's Word wanted to govern alone; or it is all the elect. By the bow are represented the Old and the New Testament, from which come as many darts as there are words in the Testaments. It is said about this bow to the same rider, stretching and extending thy bow over the sceptres. [Variant of Hab. 3:9, close to the LXX version.] As for what follows, and there was a crown given him, it does not only refer to the Head, but also to the body. And he went forth conquering that he might conquer. Where did he come forth from but from the open seal? For from the revealed mystery of the Scriptures, the very truth of the mystery appeared manifestly. The Head came forth conquering first, so that he might afterwards conquer daily through the body the temptations of the Devil and the persecutions of evil people.

We understand the loosing of the first seal to signify the generation of the apostles. For, as though it were a bow, they stretch forth the gospel message against the demons and led to Christ those wounded by the arrows of salvation. And because they conquered the leader of deceit through the truth, they received a crown, and in hope they await a second victory, namely, the confession of the name of the Master unto a violent death. Therefore, it is written, "he went out conquering and to conquer." For, the first victory is the conversion of the nations; the second is the willing departure from the body in persecution for the sake of that conversion.

The top of that ark is doubtless properly ordered to be encircled with a golden crown, because when he appeared in the flesh and came to redeem the human race, the Son of God was anticipating a certain time and hour when he would overcome the death he had borne for us (along with the author of death himself) and ascend victorious to the Father in heaven. Of this crown the apostle says, "But we see Jesus, who was indeed made a little lower than the angels, crowned with glory and honor because of the suffering of death." Of this crown John in the Apocalypse says, "And I looked, and behold, a white horse! And the one who was sitting upon it had a bow, and a crown was given to him, and he went out conquering that he might conquer." Surely the white horse is the church. The rider who was commanding it is the Lord. He had a bow because he was coming to make war against the powers of the air; and a crown of victory was given to him because by dying he overthrew the reign of death.

And behold a white horse, etc. The Lord presides over the Church, which by grace is whitened beyond snow, and bearing the arms of spiritual doctrine against the wicked, receives the victor's crown among His own. Of whom it is said: He received gifts among men (Ps. 68). In which, even presiding in heaven, He was persecuted by Saul.

And behold, a white horse, and the one who sat upon it had a bow, and a crown was given to him, and he went out conquering, so that he might conquer.

The white horse signifies the righteous who were before the flood, who are called white because of their innocence. But the rider of the horse is the Lord, who eternally presides over his saints. By the bow, which sends arrows far from itself and wounds, the vengeance of the Lord can be signified; by this he condemned the first humans because of the guilt of disobedience, and punished Cain sevenfold because of the crime of murdering his brother [fratricidii]. By the crown likewise, just as by the white horse, the righteous who were before the flood are signified. And he went out conquering, so that he might conquer, when he decreed that through the waters of the flood the whole multitude of the wicked should be destroyed.

The white horse is the church, and its rider is Christ. This horse of the Lord with the bow made ready for war was promised beforehand by Zechariah. "The Lord God will visit his flock, the house of Israel, and he will arrange him as a formidable horse in war, and from him he looked, and from him he arranged [the battle order], and from him came the bow in anger, and from him will come out every oppressor." And so we interpret the white horse to be the prophets and the apostles. In the rider who is crowned and has a bow we recognize not only Christ but also the Holy Spirit. For after Christ ascended into heaven, he opened all mysteries and sent the Holy Spirit. Through preachers the word of the Spirit, as though they were arrows, went out to the hearts of people and conquered their unbelief. The crown upon the head are the promises made through the Holy Spirit.

By the white horse, etc., he shows the faith, which is spread out into the four plagues, and all nations have confessed Christ and been saved, according to which Luke says: Believe, so that times of quiet may come to you.

If any one, again, will look into Jacob's actions, he shall find them not destitute of meaning, but full of import with regard to the dispensations. Thus, in the first place, at his birth, since he laid hold on his brother's heel, he was called Jacob, that is, the supplanter-one who holds, but is not held; binding the feet, but not being bound; striving and conquering; grasping in his hand his adversary's heel, that is, victory. For to this end was the Lord born, the type of whose birth he set forth beforehand, of whom also John says in the Apocalypse: "He went forth conquering, that He should conquer."

This white horse can be understood as the church of truth, represented in the persons of the apostles and preachers, which was made whiter than snow by grace. The rider upon the horse is Christ. Therefore, it was said to him through the prophet, "For you mounted your horses and your army is salvation." For the same reason he is said to hold an arrow. An arrow is aptly compared with the preaching of the Word of God, for when the hearts of people are pierced, they are able to bear the fruit of faith. And so we read, "Your sharp arrows are very powerful; people fall before you." The crown indicates the reward rightly given to preachers.

Be you, too, faithful unto death, and fight you, too, the good fight, whose crown the apostle feels so justly confident has been laid up for him. The angel also, as he goes forth on a white horse, conquering and to conquer, receives a crown of victory; and another is adorned with an encircling rainbow (as it were in its fair colours)-a celestial meadow.

And when he had opened the second seal, I heard the second living creature, saying: Come, and see. What does it mean that a similar command is given in a dissimilar situation, if not that concern for the future struggle is here given in the same way as joy for the achieved victory was above?

I suppose that the second living creature is the bull to depict the sacred sacrifices of the holy martyrs, since the first [creature] signified the apostolic authority.

And when he had opened the second seal, I heard the second living creature, etc. We are also commanded to diligently observe the opposing cavalry, so that just as joy is taken from the Church's successes, caution is taken from foreknowledge of adversities.

And when he had opened the second seal.

The opening of the second seal refers to the construction of the ark and to the righteous who were before the Law. To show, therefore, the opening of the second seal, let us say a few things about these. In Genesis it is written that God said to Noah: Make yourself an ark of smoothed woods; you shall make little dwellings in the ark, and you shall coat it with pitch inside and outside, and thus you shall make it. The length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, its breadth fifty cubits, and its height thirty cubits (Gen. 6:14–15). The ark signifies the Church; and Noah, the builder of the ark, prefigured Christ, the builder of the Church. This ark is described as having been made from smoothed woods: by the smoothed woods, which both kept out the waters and preserved the life of all the animals placed within it, are signified the teachers of the Church, who by their teaching and their writings prevent the waters of various errors from entering the Church, and by their teaching and examples preserve the life of those who are within the Church. They are said to be smoothed, that is, cleansed from every roughness of vices. By the little dwellings, moreover, which were commanded to be made in the ark, the different orders in the Church are signified; for one person, as it were, dwells in one dwelling, another in another: one in the married state, another in the life of chastity, another in the monastic life, another in the priestly office, while they strive to serve God. By the pitch, however, with which it is said to have been coated, Holy Scripture is signified. Therefore the planks from which the ark was made, which we have said signify the teachers of the Church, were coated with pitch inside and outside; because the teachers of the Church are coated inside by the wisdom and teaching of Holy Scripture, and outside by works of virtue.

However, the length of the ark is described as three hundred cubits, its width as fifty cubits, and its height as thirty cubits. Therefore, through the length of the ark faith is prefigured, through the width love, and through the height hope. Therefore, the length of the ark is extended to three hundred cubits, because our faith consists in the confession of the Holy Trinity; moreover, the number one hundred is a perfect number. So in three hundred cubits our faith is foreshown, because the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit have equal perfection, as it is written: Such as the Father is, such is the Son, such is the Holy Spirit (Athanasian Creed).

Nevertheless, its width is extended to fifty cubits, because faith works through love. But it is not unfitting that love is represented by the fifty cubits of width; for seven times seven makes forty-nine, and if you add one to this number, you find fifty. Therefore love of neighbor is not inappropriately contained in the number seven, because it cannot be brought to completion without the seven virtues. Now in seven times seven, each believer extends love of neighbor, in that, by whatever ways needs or adversities can happen to neighbors, by those same ways he himself stands ready to come to their aid: for example, when he provides what is necessary to the hungry, the naked, the stranger, the needy, the one placed in prison; when he consoles the sorrowful, when he moderates the angry with a word, when he brings peace to the one who bears hatred in his heart, and leads the quarrelsome back to peace; when he rouses the one lying in sins to repentance; when he strives to draw with himself to eternal life all whom he can; and, to speak briefly, by whatever ways he wishes that someone else would help him in a wholesome manner, by those same ways he himself, as far as he is able, is ready to give help. But if you add one to the seven times seven, they become fifty; likewise, if you add love of the one God to love of neighbor, then all love is brought about in you as whole and perfect.

But the height of the ark was raised to thirty cubits, because he possesses a beneficial hope who does not disagree, either in deed or in belief, with the faith of the Holy Trinity as it has been handed down to us by the apostles, and with the other teachings. For whoever claims to himself hope of obtaining eternal life without right faith undoubtedly deceives himself, because without faith it is impossible to please God (Heb. 11:6). Therefore the height of the ark arose from its great length and width, and was brought to completion upward in a cubit; because love, which is born from faith, extends itself in great width in caring for one’s neighbors. It is, however, brought to completion upward in a cubit, because all the hope and desire of the faithful tends toward the vision of the one God.

But that Noah, at the Lord’s command, brought into the ark from all the clean and unclean animals males and females (Gen. 7:8), signifies that the evil and the good would be brought into the Church. But of the clean animals there entered the ark seven and seven; of the unclean, however, two and two, male and female. For by the clean animals the elect are signified, and by the unclean the wicked. Therefore the clean animals are set in the number seven, because only those are elect who, through the grace of the Holy Spirit, are not estranged from the exercise of the gifts of that same Holy Spirit; but the wicked are set in the number two, because they exist in the Church only in body and soul, but in mind they are outside the Church.

In the following it is also written: When Noah opened the window of the ark that he had made, he sent out a raven, which went out and did not return, until the waters were dried up from upon the earth (Gen. 8:6). By the raven, a very black bird, the Jews, darkened by unbelief, are indicated. Therefore Noah sent the raven from the ark, because our Lord Jesus Christ separated the Jewish people from the fellowship of the holy Church. After the raven he sent out a dove, which, when it had not found where its foot might rest, returned to him into the ark. A second time he sent the dove from the ark, and it came to him in the evening, carrying a branch of olive with green leaves in its mouth. A third time he sent out the dove, and it did not return to him again. By the dove the Holy Spirit is often prefigured, since in the form of a dove he descended upon the Lord (Luke 3:22).

But we must inquire what the three sendings out of the dove and its two returns signify. The three sendings signify three periods: the first before the Law, the second under the Law, the third under grace. In this passage, Noah represents God, while the ark signifies the heavenly dwelling of God. Noah first sent the dove out of the ark, because God almighty gave the grace of the Holy Spirit to the holy men who lived before the Law; and although they did not have the Law, they fulfilled the divine teachings that were later given, through the gift of the Holy Spirit. But the dove did not find where her foot could rest, because not only the other nations, but even the Jews themselves, settled in Egypt, abandoned the worship of God to such an extent that at the time when Moses was born, hardly anyone could be found in whom the Holy Spirit would consent to dwell. And in a certain sense, the grace of the Holy Spirit returned to Him by whom it had been sent, when it abandoned sinful humans.

Secondly, Noah sent out a dove from the ark; for God gave the grace of the Holy Spirit to men who keep the Law with a pure heart. Now the evening when the dove returned to Noah signifies the time when Christ was born. Of this time the Lord says in the Gospel: “The Law and the prophets were until John” (Luke 16:16); because after the Gospel began to be preached, circumcision and many legal observances were of no benefit. As long as the observance of the Law pleased God, so long did the grace of the Holy Spirit accompany the men who kept the Law. And just as the dove returned to Noah in the evening, so too the grace of the Holy Spirit, leaving the unbelieving Jews, in a certain sense returned to Him from whom it had been sent. By the olive branch we can understand, or take, the Law; and by the green leaves, those who were saved through the Law. Therefore the dove carried the olive branch with green leaves in its mouth when the grace of the Holy Spirit, in a certain sense, offered to God those whom it had saved through the Law.

Thirdly, Noah sent the dove out from the ark, when he gave the grace of the Holy Spirit to those who keep faith in the Gospel. She did not return to him again, because the faith of the Gospel will remain with the elect until, when the Lord comes for judgment, the elect who are found in this world will be caught up before the Lord in the air, and therefore will always be with the Lord (1 Thess. 4:16).

But to demonstrate more clearly the opening of the second seal, let us say a few words about the three patriarchs. It is written in Genesis that God tested Abraham and said to him: Take your son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of vision, and there you will offer him as a burnt offering on one of the mountains that I will tell you of (Gen. 22:2). Abraham, rising up during the night, saddled his donkey and took with him two youths and Isaac his son. Abraham signifies Christ according to his divinity; Isaac signifies the man whom Christ assumed; and by the donkey the apostles are signified. Abraham therefore rose up by night, because the Son of God, when the world lay in the darkness of ignorance, consented to be born of the Virgin Mary. He saddled his donkey when he handed down to his apostles the commands of the Gospel. By the two youths are signified the two commandments of love. He took the two youths with him, because he impressed upon his disciples the two commandments of love more strictly and more frequently. He also took his Son, because the man whom he assumed he handed over to die for humanity, just as he himself said in the Gospel to his disciples: Behold, we are going up to Jerusalem, and all things that have been written by the prophets about the Son of Man will be fulfilled. For he will be handed over to the nations, and will be mocked and scourged and spat upon; and after they have scourged him, they will kill him, and on the third day he will rise again (Luke 18:31-33).

But on the third day, when he lifted up his eyes, he saw the place from afar. Three days signify three decades of years, and three times two months, by which spans of time Christ is said to have lived in the world. The place, moreover, foreshadowed Jerusalem, where Christ suffered. But why did he say that he saw the place from afar, since he preached in the temple every day? Because although the Jews were physically near, yet on account of their unbelief they had withdrawn far from him.

And Abraham said to his servants: Wait here with the donkey; I and the boy will go over there in a hurry, and after we have worshiped, we will return to you (Gen. 22:5). In like manner Christ also ordered his disciples to wait until, having risen, he would return to them, when he said: You will all fall away because of me this night; but after I have risen, I will go before you into Galilee (Matt. 26:32). And when he was arrested, he said to the Jews: So if you seek me, let these men go (Jn. 18:8).

Abraham therefore took the wood for the burnt offering and laid it on Isaac his son; but he himself carried in his hands the fire and the sword. We have said above that our sins were signified by the wood; therefore Isaac carried the wood, because Christ bore our sins in his body on the tree, so that, having died to sins, we might live to righteousness. By the hands of Abraham, moreover, the power of our Lord Jesus Christ is understood; for it was in his power to die and not to die, if he willed, as he himself says: I have authority to lay down my life, and I have authority to take it up again (Jn. 10:18). By the fire, however, the Passion is understood, and by the sword, his death.

When he had come to the place, he built an altar and arranged the wood on top of it. And when he had bound Isaac his son, he placed him on the altar, upon the pile of wood. By the altar the cross is understood: therefore the Son of God built the cross, on which the man whom he had taken on would be sacrificed; because it was done with his permission. On the altar indeed he arranged the wood, and on the wood he placed Isaac his bound son; for that which we wish to suffocate, we place beneath ourselves, so that it may be suffocated and destroyed by our weight: in like manner our Redeemer, hanging on the cross, placed beneath himself the wood, that is, our sins; so that by his weight and power they might be suffocated and wiped out. Moreover, the bonds of Isaac foreshadowed the Lord’s affliction on the cross. But the things that the angel spoke to Abraham do not refer to this interpretation.

Abraham lifted up his eyes and saw a ram caught by its horns in a thicket. Taking it, he offered it as a burnt offering instead of his son. The ram prefigured Christ: through the two horns, the two commandments of love are signified; through the thicket, the Jews. Therefore Christ was caught among the thicket by his horns, because, loving the Jews as brothers and knowing that the calling of the Gentiles would mean the loss of the Jews, he did not at first wish to entrust the faith of the Gospel to the Gentiles, but sending his disciples to preach, he commanded them, saying: “Do not go into the way of the Gentiles, and do not enter into the cities of the Samaritans; but go rather to the lost sheep of the house of Israel” (Matt. 10:5). And to the Canaanite woman he said: “I was not sent except to the sheep that have perished of the house of Israel” (Matt. 15:24); and again: “It is not good to take the children’s bread and throw it to the dogs” (Matt. 15:26).

But Abraham took a ram from the thicket and offered it as a burnt offering instead of his son; because the Father separated the Son, and the Son himself separated himself from the love of the wicked Jews, and offered the man whom he assumed as a burnt offering for the salvation of humanity.

But concerning this same Isaac it is written that he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. Esau was a hunter and a man who worked the land; Jacob, however, was simple and lived in tents. By Esau the Hebrew people are represented, and by Jacob the people of the nations. Isaac, as father of both, held the figure of the Lord, who made both peoples his children: that one through the Law, and this one through faith. Esau was a man of the soil, because the people of the Jews served God for earthly advantages. For it was not said to them: If you are poor in spirit, if gentle, if peacemakers, if merciful, if you endure persecutions for my name’s sake, you will be blessed, and your reward will be great in heaven; but it was said to them: If you keep my commandments and observe my judgments, I will give you rain in its seasons, and the earth will bring forth its produce, and the trees will be filled with fruit, and the other things that refer to the pleasures of this age (Lev. 26:3). Esau was also a hunter, because he was accustomed to appease God by the shedding of the blood of rams, goats, and calves. Jacob, however, was simple and lived in tents, because those chosen from the nations have sought to please God by faith alone and by good will. By the tents we can understand either the various churches in which throughout the whole world the one catholic Church is divided, or the various orders.

Isaac loved Esau because he ate the food of his hunting; but Rebecca loved Jacob. Isaac, as we have said, in this passage holds the type of the Lord; through Rebecca, however, we can understand the foreknowledge of God. Isaac therefore loved Esau because he ate the food of his hunting, since God loved the Jewish people because he was pleased by their continual offerings; but the mother loved Jacob, because God, knowing through the grace of his foreknowledge that the people of the nations would be far better than the Jewish people, loved him much more. While Esau was delayed in hunting, so that he might bring his father food from wild animals and thereby receive a blessing from him, the mother brought Jacob to his father to receive the blessing; for while the Jewish people were devoted to the observances of the Law and came more slowly to the reception of faith in Christ, the mother, grace, offered the people of the nations to God to receive the blessing that was owed to the Jews, because they had embraced faith in Christ with eagerness. How the very people of the nations merited this gift of blessing is attested in figure by the deeds of Jacob, which are described as having been done in order to receive the blessing.

So Rebecca said to her son Jacob: Bring me two of the best young goats, and I will make from them dishes for your father, such as he likes to eat; and he will bless you before the Lord, before he dies (Gen. 27:9). He went and brought them, and gave them to his mother. She prepared the food, as she knew his father liked it, and she dressed him in Esau’s clothes, which she had at home with her; and she wrapped the skins of the young goats around his hands and covered his bare neck, and she gave him the stew and the bread she had baked, and handed them over. By the two young goats we can understand the confession of the sins of the Gentile people and repentance. Jacob therefore offered two excellent young goats to his mother, because through confession of sins and repentance, which is the way to faith for those who are going to it, the Gentile people hurried to receive that same faith. These young goats are said to have been excellent, because the repentance of a sinner together with renunciation of vices is very pleasing to God, just as our Lord himself says in the Gospel: There is joy in heaven over one sinner who repents, more than over ninety-nine righteous persons who do not need repentance (Luke 15:7); meaning by the one sinner the people of the nations, and by the ninety-nine righteous, the Jews. They are called righteous for this reason, because on account of their observance of the Law they falsely thought themselves righteous; for the Lord speaks to these same righteous, saying: Woe to you who justify yourselves before men, but God knows your hearts (Luke 16:15). They are set in an imperfect number, because the Law brought no one to perfection (Heb. 7:19).

But by the delightful foods that were prepared for Isaac to be taken from the two kids, we must understand works of penance. John the Baptist speaks of these foods when he says: “Produce fruit worthy of repentance” (Matt. 3:8). By the very fine garments, however, which Esau, that is, the Jews, had left at home, we can understand the excellent teachings of the Law, such as this one: “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul, and your neighbor as yourself” (Deut. 6:5), and many others, without which no one can be righteous. These are the finest garments which the Jews left at home, that is, in the Old Testament, because they were unwilling to observe them. Clothed and adorned with these, the Gentile people went to God the Father with the food of good works. And together with the foods he also brought breads. By bread the word of God is often signified, because that person fittingly goes to God the Father with the food of good works who also does not cease to admonish all others he can to perform good works.

But we must also ask why the mother covered the hands of Jacob and his bare neck with goatskins. For when the skin is removed from a young goat, the flesh is exposed, from which tasty foods can be prepared; in the same way, when the vices are taken away from any sinner, the good of nature, together with reason, becomes visible, and if this is boiled with faith, delightful food is prepared for God from the good of nature. By the neck, therefore, because pride often shows itself in the neck, we can understand the loftiness of the mind; by the hands, however, works are indicated. Therefore each faithful person covers his neck with goatskins when, in order to lay aside the loftiness of the mind and to guard his humility, he does not cease to call his past sins back before the eyes of his mind. He covers his hands when, so that he may not be exalted in good works, he often brings his past sins back before the eyes of his mind.

After Isaac had taken food, Jacob also offered him wine. If the works of the active life are signified by food, we can understand by wine, which alienates the minds of men, the contemplative life, which renders the minds of certain of the elect insensitive to love of the world. Therefore, after food and drink had been taken, Isaac blessed Jacob; for those receive the blessing of the heavenly homeland from God who strive to please him with good works until the end of their life.

The same Jacob, when he was fleeing from Esau his brother, came to a certain place; and when he had put a stone under his head, he slept there. In his sleep he saw a ladder at his head, set up from the earth all the way to heaven, and the Lord leaning upon the ladder, and also the angels of God ascending and descending on it (Gen. 28:12). By the stone Christ is understood; indeed our foundation is Christ, of whom the Apostle says: For no one can lay another foundation besides that which has been laid, which is Christ Jesus (1 Cor. 3:11). Therefore we place our head upon the stone if, from good works, we build our wall upon Christ.

The vision of the ladder agrees with this meaning; for the two larger pieces of wood of the ladder, which are on each side and are raised from the lower parts to the upper, signify the two precepts of love. By the steps, however, which are inserted crosswise on each side into those two pieces of wood, the other virtues are signified. And just as the two pieces of wood cannot be held together without the steps, nor the steps without the two pieces of wood, so love cannot exist without the other virtues, nor the other virtues without love. And just as the various steps, unless they are inserted on each side into the two larger pieces of wood, cannot provide ascent for people, so the other virtues, unless they are born from love of God and love of neighbor, cannot provide ascent for those who wish to go to heaven, as the apostle John says: “For whoever does not love his brother whom he sees, how can he love God whom he does not see?” (1 Jn. 4:20). And just as the ladder was seen to touch the earth on one side and heaven on the other, so love is joined to our lower neighbors and to God who is above. Therefore also the angels of God were shown ascending and descending upon it; because the holy ones of God, who are signified by angels, are sometimes lifted up to the heights by love of God through the grace of contemplation, and sometimes brought back down to the lower things by love and care of neighbors. Moreover, he saw the Lord leaning upon the ladder; because whoever strives to ascend to the Lord by the path of the virtues, after they have completed the journey of their way, find the Lord, the author of all good things and the giver of rewards, with whom they will rejoice without end.

But when this same Jacob was returning from Mesopotamia of Syria and had come to the Jordan, after he had led across all that belonged to him, he remained alone. And behold, a man wrestled with him until morning. And when he saw that he could not overcome him, he touched the muscle of his thigh, and it immediately withered, and he said to him: Let me go, for now the dawn has risen. But he answered: I will not let you go unless you bless me. And he said to him: What is your name? He answered him: Jacob. And he said: You shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel shall be your name (Gen. 32:26). In this passage, by “Jacob” any sinner and penitent is signified. That the angel wrestled with Jacob in the figure of the Lord, and he with the angel, signifies what the Lord says in the Gospel: The kingdom of heaven suffers violence, and the violent seize it (Matt. 11:12). But who are the violent, if not sinners and penitents? When they see that, on account of their crimes, they are guilty of everlasting death, they knock at the gate of paradise with their prayers so long until the entrance to the heavenly kingdom is opened to them. Jacob therefore wrestles with the Lord when any sinner, fearing the punishments of eternal fire, perseveres in prayer until divine mercy comes to his aid, as the following makes clear.

When he saw that he could not overcome him, he touched the muscle of his thigh, and it immediately withered. And since lust is born from the thigh, through the muscle of the thigh we can understand carnal pleasures. Therefore the Lord touched the muscle of the sinner’s thigh when he extinguished all carnal desires from which sins arise; for it is impossible for us to abstain from sins as long as we lie dissolved in carnal pleasures. Therefore the angel said to him, that is, the one who wrestled with him in the person of the Lord: “Let me go, for now the dawn has risen” (Gen. 32:26); as if he had said: “Cease now to weep for fear of eternal fire; for now peace has returned, with vices extinguished, which had plunged you into the pit of destruction.”

And because it is not enough to abandon evil unless we also strive to do good, it continues: “And Jacob said: I will not let you go unless you bless me,” that is, I will not cease from prayers unless you enrich me with virtues; so that I, who until now have lived according to the flesh, may from now on live according to the spirit. And he said to him: “What is your name?” He answered him, “Jacob”; and he said to him: “You shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel shall be your name,” that is: You shall no longer be called the supplanter of vices, but you shall be called a man who sees God; and you who formerly were weeping lest you be plunged into hell [infernum], now will weep because for some time you are kept far from the vision of almighty God, saying with the Psalmist: “Alas for me, because my sojourning has been prolonged” (Ps. 119:5)!

Likewise Jacob also, after the struggle that he had with the Angel, is said to have limped with one foot: but the one who limps leans his whole weight on the good foot, while the other touches the ground only for a short while. Therefore the two feet signify two kinds of nourishment; for there is nourishment of the body, and there is nourishment of the soul. The nourishment of the body is food, drink, clothing; but the nourishment of the soul is the word of God and good works. Therefore each believer, if with one foot he touches the earth for a short time, leans entirely on the other; because he uses the things of the world only to relieve the needs of the body, as the Apostle says: “But having food and clothing, let us be content with these” (1 Tim. 6:8). But in those things that refer to the salvation of the soul, he throws himself wholly; lest he should ever turn aside from the way of God, which is the salvation of the soul. To explain the opening of the second seal we have said a few things out of many; now let us pursue the sequence. Next

I heard the second living creature saying, “Come and see”;

That is, understand in a spiritual way what you have come to know was done by the patriarchs.

But secondly, there is the blessing of Christ to us, who opened the second seal of the little scroll, and added to us the release of our shame, restoring to us the divine vision; He was tempted as the Lord and overcame the tempter so that He might show not only victory but also that the adversary was defeated. The adversary did not bite the heel of the rider nor trip up our steps (Ps. 140:4) according to God's commandments, but rather, falling backward and being sent away in servitude, and hearing from the Man whom he wrestled with long ago, even though God was in Him, He said, "Depart, Satan," (Matt. 4:10) and Satan went away in shame. And now, for the first time, the adversary knowing his own weakness, he who boasts of sitting above the clouds on his throne, will be made like the Most High, imagining himself according to what was described by Isaiah. (Isa. 14:13-14)

When it happened, a fiery red horse came out, led by one of the holy creatures; and to the one sitting on the horse it was given the power to take peace from the earth so that people would kill one another, and a great sword was given to him. The fiery red horse is a riddle [αἴνιγμα] of blood; therefore, a sword is given to the one seated upon it, by which to destroy and divide the unity of those on earth toward evil. They were united in their idolatry and so that they might kill one another; that is, to destroy each other through hostile contracts. For the Lord "did not come to bring peace upon the earth, but a sword; and to set a son against his father, and a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law," (Matt. 10:34-35) the new and godly against the ancient and condemned.

The same words of exhortation to "come and see" are repeated, but for a different reason. The white horse is portrayed as good, but the red horse is portrayed as evil. Just as in regard to the good, joy is promised for the church's victory, so here there is a warning against evil from a foreknowledge of the future.

"And when He had opened the second seal, I heard the second living creature saying, Come and see. And there went out another horse that was red, and to him that sate upon him was given a great sword." The red horse, and he that sate upon him, having a sword, signify the coming wars, as we read in the Gospel: "For nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom; and there shall be great earthquakes in divers places." This is the ruddy horse.

And there went out another horse that was red: and to him that sat thereon, it was given that he should take peace from the earth. The red horse is the body of the old enemy, that is all the reprobates, blood-red due to their killing of souls. While the rider of the elect says, My peace I give unto you, [John 14:27] the rider of the reprobates takes peace from the earth, because the former is the author of concord, while the latter is the author of discord. Note also that he takes peace not from heaven, but from the earth, that is from those who seek earthly things. And that they should kill one another. It is not a fleshly but a spiritual killing that should be understood in this sentence. As for how the reprobates are to kill one another, it is disclosed when it is said after that about the prince of the Jews, and a great sword was given to him, that is a spiritual and evil sword with which not the bodies, but the souls of the reprobates are killed. The Devil uses this sword in two ways: he either deceives people by himself on the inside with a spiritual speech or achieves the killing of the soul by assailing them from the outside through the tongues of his fleshly servants. All this is said to have been given him, which means that it was permitted him by the just God who disposes everything.

We suggest that this second seal is to be interpreted as the succession of the apostles that is fulfilled through martyrs and teachers. During this succession, as the proclamation is extended abroad, the peace of the world is taken away, creation being divided against itself, as was spoken by the Lord: "I have not come to bring peace on earth, but a sword." And by this [sword] the sacrifices of the martyrs are offered on the heavenly altar. The "red horse" is symbolic either of the shedding of blood or of the red-hot disposition of those who suffer for Christ. The words "it was permitted to its rider to take peace" show the all-wise permission of God that tests his faithful servants through temptations.

And another horse went out, fiery red. Against the victorious and conquering Church went out a fiery red horse, that is, a perverse people, bloodthirsty from their rider, the devil. Although we have read in Zechariah of the red horse of the Lord; but that one is red with His own blood, this one with another's.

And the one sitting on it was given power to take peace from the earth. Namely, his own peace. But the Church received the eternal peace which Christ left to it.

And a great sword was given to him. Either against those who become apostates of the faith, or against those whom he makes martyrs. About this, it is said to blessed Job: He who made him applied his sword (Job 40), meaning either that he should not tempt the saints as much as the wicked one wishes, or that vengeance for his fury should return upon himself.

And behold, a red horse; and the one who sat on it was given power to take peace from the earth, so that people should kill one another. And a great sword was given to him.

By the red horse are signified the righteous who lived after the Flood up to the time of the Law. And because the red color comes somewhat close to the golden color, as if you were to mix a blood-red kind with gold, it is not unfitting that the holy men who lived before the Law are compared to this color: in that they shone with wisdom, which is figured by gold, and were unwavering in persecutions and adversity, which are figured by blood. The rider of this horse, however, is the Lord, who dwells in his saints. To this rider it was given to take peace from the earth. If good peace is from God, how was it taken from the earth? But there is good peace and there is bad peace. Bad peace the sons of God had with the sons of men before the Flood, when they took their daughters and gave their own daughters to them (Gen. 6:1); and therefore they were wiped out with them by the waters of the Flood. And the Lord also commanded the sons of Israel not to make a covenant with the Canaanites, nor to take their daughters, nor to give their own daughters to them (Exod. 23:32). For the Psalmist speaks of good and bad peace, saying: “With the chosen you will be chosen, and with the perverse you will be perverted” (Ps. 17:27). This peace, then, God took from the earth when he separated righteous men from the wicked in mind, not in body. “So that they should kill one another.” From those whom peace is taken away, it follows that one kills another; for often the righteous kill the unrighteous, and the unrighteous kill the righteous. Thus Aram, Abraham’s brother, according to the tradition of the Jews, died in the fire of the Chaldeans because he refused to worship the fire; thus Abraham killed the four kings with their armies for their wickedness; thus the sons of Jacob, because of the violation of their sister, killed all the Shechemites. By the great sword we can understand the waters of the Flood, by which the whole world was destroyed. We can also understand by the great sword the destruction of the five cities, whose inhabitants perished by fire and brimstone, and whose land was sunk into the abyss along with them.

The red horse comes out against the victorious and conquering church. That is, there comes an evil and wicked people, made bloody from its rider, the devil. This is just as we read in Zechariah concerning the red horse of the Lord, except that there it is red from his own blood, while here it is red from the blood of others. "And to him a great sword was given, to take peace from the earth." This refers to the peace of the earth, for the church possesses an eternal peace that Christ left behind for himself. As we noted above, the white horse is the church and its rider is Christ or the Holy Spirit in whose hand is a bow that sends forth his commandments, as though they were powerful, sharp arrows, throughout the whole world both to kill sins and to enliven the hearts of the faithful. The crown upon his head is the promise of eternal life. Here, … the red horse is an evil people whose rider is the devil. It is said to be red because it has been made red with the blood of multitudes. And a sharp sword was given to it to take peace from the earth. This means that with the devil's connivance and influence evil people join together and do not cease to incite among themselves strife and dissension, even unto death.

By the red horse, battle and the shedding of the blood of the saints, which the pagans have poured out.

For, in coming to the High Priest of the Father-Christ-all impediments must first be taken away, in the space of a week, that the house which remains, the flesh and the soul, may be clean; and when the Word of God has entered it, and has found "stains of red and green," forthwith must the deadly and sanguinary passions "be extracted" and "cast away" out of doors-for the Apocalypse withal has set "death" upon a "green horse," but a "warrior" upon a "red" -and in their stead must be under-strewn stones polished and apt for conjunction, and firm,-such as are made (by God) into (sons) of Abraham, -that thus the man may be fit for God.

This red horse, gory not with its own blood but with the blood of others, is said to fight against the victorious church when it is sent in to take that peace from the earth that passes all understanding. For [the church] is taught both from deed and from the sword.

And when he had opened the third seal, I heard the third living creature saying: Come, and see. And behold a black horse, and he that sat on him had a pair of scales in his hand. By the blackness of this horse is represented that hunger of the wicked by which they long to devour eagerly the body of Christ and to send it into the stomach of their evilness. Their rider has a pair of scales in his hand because he seeks to buy the lives of the good with temporal payments in order to be able to satiate his hunger and that of his people. He held this pair of scales in his hand when he offered one fruit to eat, and bought the whole world to cause its ruin. One should know indeed that the Devil first takes away the food that consists of hearing the Word of God, so that he may the more easily absorb people to increase his body when they suffer from starvation because they are deprived of spiritual food; whence the Lord says through the prophet, Behold I will send forth a famine into the land: not a famine of bread, nor a thirst of water, but of hearing the word of God. [Am. 8:11] Indeed the Lord does this by forsaking people, and the Devil by invading them. Yet how could those who are God's grain, wine, and oil, suffer from this famine? No; let the chaff, husks, and oil dregs suffer from it, and let them, who are worth no price, fall in with the pair of scales; not those who have been redeemed by the blood of Christ; whence it is said soon after that:

I believe that the third living creature here is the man and that [this passage] shows the fall of men and for this reason his punishment because of his inclination toward sin by the power of free will.… We think that the "black horse" depicts the sorrow that comes upon those who have fallen away from faith in Christ on account of the abundance of torments. The "balance" is he who tests those who either by inconstancy of mind or by vainglory have fallen from the faith through weakness of the body.

And behold, a black horse, etc. The black horse represents a crowd of false brothers, who have the balance of right profession, but harm their companions through works of darkness. For when it is said, in the midst of the creatures, Do not harm, it is shown that there is someone there who harms. About this advancing horse, the Apostle says: Fightings without, fears within.

And when he had opened the third seal.

The opening of the third seal pertains to the Law and to those who were under the Law. To show, therefore, the opening of the third seal, it has seemed good to say a few things about Moses and about those matters in the Law that appear to be irrational. In Exodus it is written that when Moses was born, he was hidden for three months by his parents; afterward his mother made for him a little basket of reeds, coated it with tar and pitch, and after placing the infant inside, set him among the reeds at the riverbank (Exod. 2:2-3). Moses prefigured Christ; and by the three months during which Moses was hidden, three periods of time are indicated: one before the flood; the second from after the flood up to Moses; the third from Moses up to the coming of the Lord. In these three periods the coming of Christ according to the flesh was hidden from men; yet it was foretold by the perfect. By the little basket of reeds the blessed Virgin Mary is signified: the mother therefore prepared the little basket of reeds in which Moses was to be placed, because the wisdom of God, which is the Son of God, chose the blessed and glorious Mary, ever virgin, in whose unaltered womb he would form the man to whom he would be joined by unity of person. By the tar, which cannot be dissolved by water, we can understand the virginity of blessed Mary, which could not be violated by any carnal heat; and by the pitch, which is the guardian of wine, humility, the guardian of the other virtues. Of this same humility she speaks, saying: “Because he has regarded the humility of his handmaid; for behold, from now on all generations will call me blessed” (Luke 1:48). By the river the world is signified; by the reeds in which Moses was placed, the Jews are signified; for later it is read that he was found in a papyrus basket by the daughter of Pharaoh. The reeds in this passage have the same meaning as the papyrus; for reeds are accustomed to wound the hands that touch them, while from papyrus in ancient times books used to be made. By the reeds, therefore, the Jews are signified, who killed the prophets, namely, spiritual physicians who wished to heal their wounds. The same people are also signified by the papyrus, because they boasted in the Scriptures handed down to them by God, which they read but did not keep. The daughter of Pharaoh, that is, of the Devil, prefigured the people from among the nations. The daughter of Pharaoh therefore took Moses up from the papyrus (Exod. 2:5); because the Church from the nations, receiving faith in Christ, took that same Christ away from the Jews who were unwilling to believe.

Afterwards, when that same Moses was pasturing the sheep of Jethro his kinsman, the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire from a bush, and he saw that the bush was burning and was not being consumed (Exod. 3:2). By the bush which produced flames from itself and was not consumed, we can understand the blessed Virgin Mary, who brought forth the Son of God from her womb and did not lose her virginity; but because of the things that follow, I judge that by the bush Christ is to be understood, inasmuch as he is man. The flame of the bush, however, prefigured his divinity. Therefore the bush was burning and was not consumed, because when the Son of God assumed man, just as his divinity was not changed into humanity so as to lose what it was, so also his humanity, burning by divinity, was not so absorbed by divinity as to lose humanity; but from two substances, of humanity and of deity, one Christ remained and remains, as it is written: perfect God, perfect man, subsisting from a rational soul and human flesh (Athanasius in the Creed).

And the Lord spoke to Moses from the midst of the flame of the bush: Do not come near here; take the shoes from your feet, for the place where you stand is holy ground. I have surely seen the affliction of my people who are in Egypt, and I have heard their groaning, and I have come down to deliver them. But come, I will send you to Pharaoh, that you may lead the sons of Israel out of the land of Egypt (Exod. 3:5-10). And a little later: And Moses said to the Lord: Who am I, that I should go to Pharaoh, and lead the sons of Israel out of Egypt (Exod. 3:11)? And in what follows he speaks to the Lord about the sons of Israel, saying: They will not listen to my voice, but they will say: The Lord has not appeared to you (Exod. 4:1); and again: I beg you, Lord, send whom you will send (Exod. 4:13). These words show that Moses obeyed the commands of the Lord reluctantly, to lead the sons of Israel out of the land of Egypt; but we must inquire why so great a man carried out the command of the Lord unwillingly. Indeed, we must understand this stubbornness of his in a spiritual sense; for the Apostle says: Now all these things happened to them as a figure; and they were written for our correction, upon whom the ends of the ages have come (1 Cor. 10:11). By Moses, therefore, in this passage the apostles are signified; for at the beginning of the preaching of the Gospel the apostles, knowing that the election of the Gentiles was the rejection of the Jews, did not wish to impart to the Gentiles the teaching of the Gospel, so that they might be rescued from the power of the Devil. Therefore also the Lord, in a vision of four-footed animals and creeping things, rebuked Peter for despising the Gentiles, saying: What God has cleansed, do not call common (Acts 10:15). To this sense, then, belongs that which the Lord said to Moses: Do not come near here; take the shoes from your feet, for the place where you stand is holy ground (Exod. 3:5), as if the Lord had said to one of the great apostles: Even if you raise the dead, even if by the shadow of your body you heal the sick, do not dare in any respect to compare yourself with me; for the great things that you do are not from you, but I work through you. Now shoes protect the feet so that they do not touch the ground; by “ground,” in fact, the Gentiles are signified. Remove, he says, the shoes from your feet; that is, take away hatred and contempt of the Gentiles from your heart. For the place where you stand is holy ground: that is, the world in which you dwell has been redeemed by my blood.

And in the following verses the Lord said to Moses: What is that you hold in your hand? And he said: A rod. He said to him: Cast it on the ground. When he had cast it, it was turned into a serpent, so that Moses fled; and the Lord said to him: Take it by the tail. When he had taken hold of it, it was turned into a rod (Exod. 4:2). By the rod the Jews are signified. Moses held the rod in his hand, because the apostles held the Jewish people in their hearts through love, and with all their strength they labored to lead them to salvation through the teaching of their preaching. Moses cast the rod from his hand, because the apostles, seeing that the Jews in no way wanted to believe in Christ, cast their love for them out of their hearts. By the serpent, however, the Devil is signified. The rod was therefore turned into a serpent, because the Jews became worse through the preaching of the apostles; those who were formerly called the people of God were made sons and members of the Devil. Moses fled, because the apostles, leaving the Jews behind, passed over to the Gentiles. By the tail, which is the end of the body, the Jews who are to be born at the end of the world are signified. Moses therefore took hold of the serpent’s tail, and it was turned into a rod; because holy preachers at the end of the world will in a certain way lay hold of the Jews, when through their teaching they are converted to faith in Christ, and from children of the Devil they are made children of God.

For that event too, when at the Lord’s command Moses put his hand into his chest and drew it out leprous, and then put it in again and it was made healthy, has the same meaning: by the hand of Moses the Jews are signified. Moses put his hand into his chest, because the Apostles, desiring the salvation of the Jews, did not cease to preach to them the doctrine of faith. Moses drew back his hand and found it leprous, because the Jews, made much worse by the preaching of the apostles, fell into the most grievous leprosy of unbelief and blasphemies. Moses again put his hand into his chest and drew it back healthy, because in the end of the world the holy preachers will receive the Jews into their heart, will preach to them faith in Christ, and will restore them to the health which they had lost.

In what follows it is also written that when Moses was returning to Egypt, the Lord met him and wanted to put him to death. At once Zipporah took a very sharp stone and circumcised the flesh of her son’s foreskin, and touched his feet and said: “You are a bridegroom of blood to me” (Exod. 4:25). And He let him go, after she had said: “You are a bridegroom of blood to me, because of the circumcision.” If the Lord wanted to kill Moses, why did He not do what He wanted, since the Psalmist says: “Whatever the Lord willed, He has done” (Ps. 134:6)? But “will” is often used in place of “threat”: the Lord therefore threatened Moses with death because he was carrying a son who was uncircumcised, just as He speaks to Abraham, saying: “Every soul among you that shall not have been circumcised shall perish from among its people” (Gen. 17:14). But leaving these things aside, let us return to spiritual understanding. In this passage Moses represents those who have believed from among the nations; for at the beginning of the faith the apostles and the other preachers, considering the weakness of the nations that were receiving faith in Christ, did not wish at first to hand on to them the stricter teachings of Christ, lest, frightened, they would not dare to come to the acceptance of faith in Christ. The apostle Paul shows that this is so, as he speaks by letter to those who had believed from the nations, saying: “As to little children in Christ I gave you milk to drink, not solid food; for you were not yet able, nor indeed are you even now able; for you are still carnal” (1 Cor. 3:2). And the apostles also gave orders to those who had believed in Christ at Antioch, saying: “It has seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us to place upon you no burden except that you abstain from foods sacrificed to idols, and from fornication, and from what is strangled, and from blood.” (Acts 15:28–29) The Lord therefore threatened Moses with death because he was neglecting to circumcise the flesh of his son’s foreskin: for to those who believed from the nations, because they were lukewarm in love, the Lord threatened death, when He set before them the teachings of His Gospel, where it is written: “Narrow and constricted is the way that leads to life, and few there are who go by it. Broad and spacious is the way that leads to death, and many there are who go by it” (Matt. 7:14); and again: “Whoever does not carry his cross and follow me is not worthy of me” (Luke 14:27); and many other things that are found in the Gospel and in apostolic sayings concerning the cutting away of vices.

By the rock, however, Christ is understood, and the sharp point of the rock is the hard teachings of the Gospel. Therefore Zipporah took a very sharp stone and circumcised the flesh of her son’s foreskin; because the Church, seeing that her sons can in no way attain perfect salvation unless all carnal desires are rooted out from their bodies, took the stricter teachings of the Gospel and cut away from the bodies of her sons all nourishment of vices. Now in the feet is the end of the body: therefore, after the circumcision, Zipporah touched her son’s feet; because he receives saving circumcision who perseveres in the good he has begun until the end of life. But after Zipporah touched her son’s feet, she no longer calls him son but bridegroom; now the bridegroom of the Church is Christ. And she herself is called his bride, as John the Baptist says: He who has the bride is the bridegroom (Jn. 3:29). And she calls him a bridegroom of blood, because she has been redeemed by the blood of Christ. Therefore the sons of the Church, after the circumcision of vices and the completion of life in good works, are now called not sons but bridegrooms; because through the joining of members they are united in heaven to him who on earth is called, and indeed is, the bridegroom of the Church.

And since we cannot recount everything that was done in Egypt through Moses, let us set down a few of the things that were done by them after the departure of the people of Israel from Egypt. The sons of Israel, in order to escape Pharaoh and the Egyptians, passed through the midst of the sea on dry ground, and the waters were for them like a wall on the right and on the left (Exod. 14:22). Likewise, the people of the nations, in order to escape the Devil and all his followers, passed through the water of baptism. And those who previously were children of the Devil, by water and the Holy Spirit, who was prefigured by the pillar of fire, having been reborn, were made children of God. Therefore, the water of the sea saved the sons of Israel, but it slew Pharaoh with all his followers; because the water of baptism saves the image of God and extinguishes the sins which had been served. The Devil, however, is extinguished for each person who faithfully renounces him with all his pomps. And the waters that were for them like a wall on the right and on the left signified our faith, which we received in baptism, which is our wall, defending us on both sides, both from invisible enemies and from visible ones.

After crossing the Red Sea they came to Marah, where they found bitter waters which they could not drink. And the Lord showed Moses a piece of wood which, when he had thrown it into the waters, they were turned into sweetness (Exod. 15:23). By the bitter waters the Law of Moses is signified; by the wood, however, the passion of Christ, since it was fulfilled upon the wood of the cross, as we should understand. The people therefore who came out of Egypt found bitter waters, because they received the Law, which they could not fulfill; but when the nations came to faith in Christ, the bitterness of the Law was turned into sweetness through the passion and resurrection of Christ, because it was understood by them spiritually, not carnally. That event also, in which at Elim they found twelve springs and pitched their camp beside the waters (Exod. 15:27), has the same meaning; for by the waters of the twelve springs the teaching of the New Testament is signified, which flowed forth into the whole world from the twelve springs, that is, from the twelve apostles; and by the seventy palm trees the Old Testament is signified, because through the translation of the Septuagint translators it came to the knowledge of the nations.

Nevertheless, leaving these things aside, let us say a few words about those matters which in the Law seem to be irrational. The Lord commanded the sons of Israel: You shall not cook a young goat in the milk of its mother (Exod. 23:19); and again: You shall not plow with an ox and a donkey together; and you shall not wear a garment that is woven of wool and linen together (Deut. 22:10). For what sin does someone commit if he cooks a young goat in its mother’s milk? Or in what way does a farmer do wrong if he tills the earth with oxen and donkeys together pulling the plow? Or how does anyone offend if he wears a garment woven of wool and linen together? But all these things must be understood spiritually; for by the young goat every sinner is signified. Our first parents, from whom we all have been begotten, were our mother; and the mother’s milk is the vices which have arisen from original sin; for if original sin had not existed, there would be no vice. Of this mother’s milk the Psalmist speaks, saying: For behold, I was conceived in iniquities, and in sins did my mother bear me (Ps. 50:7). Therefore the young goat is cooked in its mother’s milk when any sinner is consumed by the fire of vices right up to the day of his death. Therefore the Lord commanded that the young goat should not be cooked in its mother’s milk, that is, that the sinner should not be allowed to remain in his sins until the day of his death, but before the day of his death he should be called back to the performance of good works, lest he perish.

You shall not plow with an ox and a donkey together (Deut. 22:10). By the ox we can understand the apostles and the other preachers; by the donkey we can understand the people of the Jews. We truly plow when, according to the tradition of the saints, we exercise ourselves in good works. Therefore, whoever tries to keep at the same time the teaching of the apostles and the traditions of the Jews, plows with an ox and a donkey together. From this teaching the Apostle Paul tried to call the Galatians back when he said: O foolish Galatians! Who has bewitched you, that you should not obey the truth? For I tell you that if you are circumcised, Christ will be of no benefit to you (Gal. 3:1; 5:2). We can also understand by the ox any wise preacher, and by the donkey a foolish one. Therefore it is commanded that one shall not plow with an ox and a donkey together, that is, that a fool must not be joined to a wise man in the office of preaching. But this which he says: You shall not wear a garment woven of wool and linen together (Deut. 22:11), we can understand according to the previous meaning. For by wool, which is the clothing of sheep, we can understand the teaching of the apostles; by linen, which comes forth from the earth, we can understand the teaching of the Jews. We put on a garment when we surround ourselves with good works; but a person uses a garment woven of wool and linen who wants to observe the traditions of the Jews together with the traditions of the apostles.

The Lord also commanded Moses that if any leper were cleansed, he should come to the priest and offer two sparrows to the priest. Of these the priest, sacrificing one, should let its blood run down into living waters; and dipping the living sparrow into the waters into which he had made the blood of the sacrificed sparrow run down, together with cedar wood, scarlet wool, and hyssop, he should sprinkle the leper seven times, and then he would be duly cleansed (Lev. 14:1–7). By the priest Christ is understood; and by the two sparrows the teachers of the two Testaments are understood. By the living waters, moreover, the teachings of the Gospel are indicated, of which the Lord says in the Gospel: “Whoever believes in me, as the Scripture says, rivers of living water will flow from his belly” (Jn. 7:38). He calls them living waters because they grant eternal life to those who do them. By the sparrow therefore that was sacrificed, as we have said, the teachers of the Jews are signified, namely the priests, the scribes, and the Pharisees. The blood, however, which gave life to the sparrow, is spiritual understanding, which lay hidden in the observances of the Jews. And as a sparrow without blood is rendered dead, so also many observances of the Jews, if spiritual understanding were lacking, would appear to be vain. After the blood of the sparrow appeared and ran down into the living waters, the sparrow died; because after the spiritual understanding, which lay hidden in the observances of the Jews, was revealed through the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, certain legal observances were of no benefit; and even those who, for the sake of keeping the Law, rejected faith in Christ are dead in soul. The blood of the sparrow, then, is mixed with the living waters; because all Scripture that refers to the New Testament is filled with examples of the Old Testament spiritually understood. By the cedar wood the Father is signified; by the hyssop, the Son; and by the scarlet wool, which has the brightness of fire, the Holy Spirit is signified. With these three the one who wished to be duly cleansed was sprinkled; because no one can be cleansed from the leprosy of sins through the water of baptism, except under the call of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.

But if through these three the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit are signified, why is a living sparrow added as a fourth? For we have said that through the living sparrow the preachers of the New Testament were signified. Therefore the priest added the living sparrow to the cedar wood, the scarlet, and the hyssop, because our Lord Jesus Christ, in the call of his name, and of the Father and of the Holy Spirit, joins to this the ministry of priests, and washes us from our sins, represented by the leper, through their petition and through the water of baptism. This sparrow is commanded to be dipped in living waters, because whoever teaches others must be instructed in the divine Scriptures; for if a blind man tries to lead a blind man, both fall into a pit (Matt. 15:14). The leper is ordered to be sprinkled seven times, because no cleansing can be perfect without the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. For who can be saved without the fear of God, without piety, and the other virtues? But when each person is taught by the preachers of the faith how he ought to live according to the commandments of God, he is sprinkled seven times with living water. After the cleansing of the leper, the living sparrow was then allowed to fly off into the field, because the holy preachers, after completing the duty of their preaching, earn the right to fly into the field of their heavenly homeland.

In another place also it is written that the Lord commanded Moses that the sons of Israel should offer to the priest the scapegoat, and that the priest should lay his hands on its head and confess over it the sins of the sons of Israel and send it by a man who was ready into the wilderness, so that it might carry the sins of the sons of Israel into the wilderness. But the one who led the scapegoat into the wilderness was not allowed to enter the camp unless he first washed his garments (Lev. 16:21-26). Therefore the priest has the same meaning as the scapegoat; for they signify our Lord Jesus Christ. So the priest confessed over the scapegoat the sins of the sons of Israel, because the Son of God placed the sins of humanity upon the man whom he assumed, so that he himself would die for them. By the wilderness, whose dwelling all lovers of luxury dread, the cross is signified, very terrible to all who are guilty. Therefore the man who was ready led the scapegoat into the wilderness, because the Jews, who had been foreknown for the responsibility of this crime, crucified our Lord Jesus Christ. But it was commanded that the one who had led the scapegoat into the wilderness should first wash his garments and so enter the camp, because the Jews, the killers of Christ, could not enter the camp of the Church unless they were first washed with the water of baptism.

And in Deuteronomy Moses commanded the sons of Israel, saying: If you pass through a field and find a bird sitting on its young; do not keep the bird with its young, but let the bird fly away into the open field, and keep the young you have taken; so that you may live a long time in the land which the Lord your God has given you (Deut. 22:6). Could the releasing of a little bird increase anyone’s lifespan? No, but it is to be understood spiritually. By the bird, each holy soul is signified; by its young, good works are understood. For just as a bird gathers its young under its wings, so that by warming them it may nourish them, so each holy soul stores its works within the secret places of the heart, and by always increasing them multiplies and nourishes them, so that from them it may receive a most full reward. We find the bird with its young when we lovingly embrace a just person on account of his good works. We allow the bird to fly away into the field when we rejoice that the one we loved has, through death, ascended to the heavenly realms. But we keep his young captured if we retain his good works in our mind and advance by imitating them. And in this we acquire length of life for ourselves, which is given only to those who are established in heavenly blessedness. We have said a few things out of many about the opening of the third seal; now let us continue the arrangement.

I heard the third living creature saying: Come and see;

That is, understand the Scripture of the Law spiritually.

And behold, a black horse, and the one who sat upon it had a balance in his hand.

By the black horse we can understand the teachers of the Law; for the blackness of the horse signifies either the obscurity of the Law which they taught, or its hardness. For Moses also had a veil over his face, because the radiance of his countenance, that is, the spiritual understanding in the Law, could not be seen by eyes that were unfocused. Now the rider of the horse is the Lord; and the balance shows the equity of legal judgment, as in this: A life for a life, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a foot for a foot (Exod. 21:23), and whatever blemish someone has inflicted, such a one is also compelled to endure.

In the black horse we recognize an evil people which works in concert with the devil. "He had a balance in his hand," which indicates that while evil persons feign to have the scales of justice, they deceive many.

By the black horse, he indicates the time of suffering that falls upon the earth because of the iniquities and impieties that are multiplied.

Thirdly, the mercy of Christ has opened the third seal for us, and has brought us, from having been condemned to rejection, to God and the Father. And this is his saving teaching, and the benefits through the divine signs; for these brought about the overthrow of the Devil; for through them we have come to know who is by nature and truly God, "so that we may not be infants, tossed about by every wind of doctrine" (Eph. 4:14); and we honor those things which our hands have made, exchanging the corruptible demons for the glory of God. For the divine teaching of the Lord drew to itself, like yeast to flour, those who were learning, according to the voice of the Lord, and enjoying the miracles, which healed souls more than bodies.

When these things happened, a black horse came forth, and the one sitting on it had a pair of scales in his hand. The black horse symbolizes sadness and mourning, imposed by the divine teachings following the downfall of the Devil, and therefore, in Devil's mourning, it finds its own release [λῦσιν], corresponding to such extensive periods of time.

The scales are indeed a symbol of equality and justice. For "the one who judges righteousness sat upon the throne; he rebuked the nations of the demons, and the impious one," (Ps. 9:5-6) their leader, perished. Therefore, the scales is a symbol of the righteous judgment of the Lord, the scales that is upon us; it also signifies that we may speak boldly before Him: "You have established my judgment and my justice," (Ps. 9:5) so that the nations may know that we are men, and not subjected to the judgment of beasts, dragged by a "bridle and a strap," (Ps. 31:9) and pastured by destructive tyrants.

And he said, I heard a voice in the midst of the four living creatures saying, "A quart of wheat for a denarius, and three quarts of barley for a denarius; and do not harm the oil and the wine." The word and the teaching, as a seed, is metaphorically expressed in the divine Scripture; for it is written according to Matthew: "The sower went out to sow" (Matt. 13:3); and again, the most favored of the servants said to their lord, "Lord, did you not sow good seed in the field? Where then do the weeds come from?" (Matt. 13:27) As for the seed, it is indeed grain, like the evangelical preaching which serves as proper nourishment for mature men, "who have their powers of discernment trained by constant practice to distinguish good from evil." (Heb. 5:14)

What then is barley? According to the Law of Moses, it is the teaching, as the earliest form of grain, fully matured, and serving as nourishment appropriate for livestock, feeding the infant Israel.

Therefore, God speaks from among the four living creatures saying: "A quart of wheat for a denarius, and three quarts of barley for a denarius." Through this, a famine is foretold, along with a scarcity among the people of that time of both teaching and the Gospel from the Lord, as well as of the law, according to what is written: "I will give them neither hunger for bread nor thirst for water, but hunger for hearing the word of the Lord." (Amos 8:11)

Even if he says that those who despise every teaching and turning should suffer these and those things most of all, do not harm the oil and the wine; leave them alone and do not bring any punishment upon them; God says there is still mercy for them from me. Since there is hope for them, to be spiritually joyful in the divine proclamations of my Only Begotten; for this is "the wine that spiritually gladdens the heart of man." (Ps. 104:15)

Therefore, by continuing in their previous disobedience, he would wrong the mercy granted to them by God, as well as the joy that would be perceived [νοητὴν] through faith. And why do I say "perceived" only? For the teachings of the Lord possessed grace that was both perceptible and visible; and the prophet bears witness, saying, "Grace has been poured out upon your lips," (Ps. 44:32) addressing the Lord. Moreover, Josephus, the Jewish man, compelled by truth, writes concerning Him in his book Antiquities of the Jews the following: "At this time there appeared Jesus, a wise man, if it is proper to call him a man; for he was a doer of extraordinary works, a teacher of people who accept the truth with pleasure; and he attracted many Jews and many from the Greek population.

This was the Christ. And He was shown to us as one of the first men, having been crucified by Pilate; those who first loved Him did not cease. For He appeared to them alive again on the third day, fulfilling what the divine prophets had spoken, these and countless other miracles concerning Him. Even now, the community [φῦλον] of those called Christians has not perished from this time onward."

"And when He had opened the third seal. I heard the third living creature saying, Come and see. And, lo, a black horse; and he who sate upon it had a balance in his hand." The black horse signifies famine, for the Lord says, "There shall be famines in divers places; "but the word is specially extended to the times of Antichrist, when there shall be a great famine, and when all shall be injured. Moreover, the balance in the hand is the examining scales, wherein He might show forth the merits of every individual.

And I heard as it were a voice in the midst of the four living creatures, saying: Two pounds of wheat for a penny, and thrice two pounds of barley for a penny, and see thou hurt not the wine and the oil. This voice sounded in the midst of the four living creatures, that is in the midst of the Church, when, after the nations had been united in faith, the divine power restrained the Devil from hurting the elect; as if he were told by mockery, "The rider of the white horse has chosen and purchased the wheat, barley, wine, and oil for one penny; and he has left for you the chaff, husks, and oil dregs." So one two-pound measure, which is made up of two sextarii, is the Church based on love of God and neighbor from the two Testaments. However we should understand here one Church consisting of the holy preachers or men of great merit, not of everyone in general. Indeed it is not without reason that barley is here mentioned after the wheat. Therefore let us take the two pounds of wheat as representing the new preachers of the Church, coming from two peoples, and men more outstanding in virtues, who, after being shattered by the mill of tribulations and cooked by the fire of persecutions, have deserved to become a beautiful white bread for Christ. Let us take thrice two pounds of barley as representing the lives of the inferiors and weak from both peoples. Note also that the price of the wheat and of the barley is the same, because even though the work of the saints is unequal, they were nonetheless bought for the same price, and they will receive the same penny after their work. [Ref. Matt. 20:1-16] Furthermore, it should be noted that the same idea is repeated when it is said afterwards See thou hurt not the wine and the oil. How indeed could the Church not be wine and oil when it is trodden like a grape in the wine press of oppressions and dissolved as a crushed olive in the oil press of straits?

QUESTION: What is meant by Two pounds of wheat for a penny, and thrice two pounds of barley for a penny, and see thou hurt not the wine and the oil? ANSWER: He is saying: Be careful not to entice your brother into sin through bad example, your brother for whom Christ died, and who wears the signs of the sacred blood and unction; because Church members, from those who are perfect in merits to those who are the least ones in the Church but are nonetheless imbued with faith in the holy Trinity, have all been redeemed for the perfect price of the Lord's blood. It is also not without reason that perfection in faith or work is represented by two pounds rather than a single one, because both are based on the root of the double love.

The phrase "a quart of wheat for a denarius" figuratively indicates those who have struggled lawfully and have carefully preserved the divine image given to them. The phrase "three quarts of barley for a denarius" speaks of those who like cattle have through cowardice bowed the neck to persecutors but have later repented and have washed their defiled image with tears. The command "do not harm wine and oil" indicates that the healing of Christ through repentance, which healed him who fell among the thieves, ought not be rejected, nor that those be allowed to be seized prematurely by death who through patience would be retrieved from defeat. Therefore, that we also might possess God as our beneficent physician for the suffering of our souls, let us be zealous to be such to our brothers who have fallen, bringing to them the wine of consolation mixed with the oil of compassion, "so that what is lame may not be put out of joint but rather be healed," as the apostle says. And so becoming fellow workers with God, we may eternally enjoy his blessings by the grace and good will of our Lord, Jesus Christ.

A measure of wheat for a denarius, etc. He says, Beware lest you scandalize your brother by a very bad example, for whom Christ died and who bears the marks of the sacred blood and chrism. For whether by the merits of the perfect, or even of the least, anyone in the Church imbued with faith in the Holy Trinity is redeemed at the same perfect price of the Lord's blood. And not without reason is the perfection of faith or work expressed by a double measure and not a single one, which both consist in the root of twin charity.

And I heard a voice in the midst of the four living creatures saying.

The voice which was made in the midst of the four living creatures can be understood as the voice of the Church imploring the Lord's mercy.

Two pounds of wheat for a denarius, and three double-pounds of barley for a denarius, and do not harm the wine and the oil.

Great are the things he brought forth, and very obscure. Through the wheat from which the best bread is made, we can understand the divine Scripture, which is the bread of souls: but the two pounds of wheat signify the two Testaments, by which the divine Scripture is divided. From these two pounds of wheat the holy fathers have prepared for us a great abundance of food, who have expounded it in many ways: but the denarius signifies the Lord. Therefore the two pounds of wheat are joined to the denarius; because what the holy Scripture speaks refers to the omnipotence, greatness, goodness, and severity of one God; for whatever good we do towards our neighbors, it is from him, not from us. But through the harshness of the barley the works of the saints are signified: which indeed seem harsh through their operation, but hope makes them sweet, as the Lord says: For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light (Matt. 11:30). But there are three double-pounds of barley: therefore not inconveniently through the number six, which is perfect, the works of the saints are signified, because the perfection of the saints increases from good works. Therefore the three double-pounds of barley are joined to the denarius; because whatever good the elect do in this world, whatever difficulties they suffer, they do and suffer for the love of one omnipotent God.

Alternatively: by the horse those who have been made safe through the Law are indicated; by its rider, the very giver of the Law; and by the balance, the equity of his judgment. It follows that by the two measures of wheat and the three double-measures of barley we are to understand the Old Testament. Therefore by the two measures of wheat are signified the two commandments of love, which are especially celebrated in the Law and the Prophets, as the Lord says in the Gospel: “On these two commandments the whole Law and the Prophets depend” (Matt. 22:40). And by the three double-measures of barley we can take the Old Testament, because it is divided by the Hebrews into three parts: the Prophets, the Law, and the Writings. Nor is it unsuitable that the Old Testament is signified by barley, which has a rough husk, on account of the harshness, namely, of the legal guidelines. For just as barley, beneath the roughness of its husk, contains the kernel from which bread is made, so also beneath the letter of the Old Testament there is contained the spiritual understanding, from which the bread of spiritual teaching is prepared by the teachers of the Church, promoting the nourishment of the faithful. For the apostle Paul writes that the Law brought no one to perfection, that is, none of those who understand and practice it in a carnal way; but those who understand and practice it in a spiritual way it undoubtedly raises to the summit of perfection (Heb. 7:19). Therefore the three measures of barley are doubled so that they reach six, which is a perfect number, since the Old Testament is first understood historically and afterwards spiritually by the doctors of the Church, and its spiritual understanding is fulfilled in works. By the denarius, however, eternal life is signified, as the Lord teaches in the Gospel (Matt. 20:2). The Church therefore prays to the Lord and says: “Two measures of wheat for a denarius, and three double-measures of barley for a denarius,” that is, for those who keep the two commandments of love according to the teaching of the Law and the Prophets, namely, the fathers of the Old Testament; and likewise for those who understand and practice the Old Testament spiritually, that is, the faithful of the Church, consent to grant the denarius of eternal life. By the strictness of wine we may understand the active life, and by the richness of oil the contemplative life. Therefore what he says, “Do not harm the wine and the oil,” is as if he said: Do not harm those who have endeavored to serve you through the works of the active life or the contemplative life, when you come to judgment. It continues:

The wine is to be interpreted as the blood of Christ, and the oil as the unction of chrismation.

A quart of wheat for a denarius—This announces the famine, which there will be because of the impious in the end; he calls a cabus a quart measure, which is a third of a modius in the region of Phrygia and Galatia.

I think that the different numbers of one and three are mentioned on account of the diversity of personal habitations. In the one denarius is indicated eternal life that is common to all even though [they live] among many mansions. And if one is there regarded as more sublime than another according to merits or is given a greater reward, yet no one is thought to be preeminent in comparison with another. For where there is a single immortality to each, there a common eternity exists for all. So also in the wine and oil he prohibits the dishonoring of the power of the sacraments, since that is the chrismation and the precious blood. Therefore we read, "What does he have which is good and beautiful, unless it be the fruit of the elect and producing virgins as wine." And in the psalm: "Wine gladdens the heart of man, and his face is made cheerful in oil."

He is speaking of the church in the figures of the wheat and barley. He speaks either of those who are great and who are least in the church or of those who are leaders and the people. However, one two-pound weight is no less than three two-pound weights, for the same perfection subsists both in the unity and in the trinity. Thus, the Lord said that the leaven was hidden in the three measures of meal, showing the teaching of wisdom that from something small the whole people are consecrated by the mystical number of the undivided Trinity. But this teaches also that there is one price for both the wheat and the barley, that is, that although one person may exceed another in merit, both have nevertheless been redeemed by one price.

"Hurt not the wine and the oil." That is, strike not the spiritual man with thy inflictions. This is the black horse.

And when he had opened the fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth living creature, saying: Come, and see. And behold a pale horse, and he that sat upon him, his name was Death, and hell followed him. The people represented by the pale horse are the same as those represented by the red horse, their spiritual death being now symbolized by the pallor of the horse. It is right to say that death, that is the Devil intending to fight against the living, sits on them, because he seeks to extinguish the lives of the elect by the agency of those he has already killed spiritually. Hell means those in whom death dwells. Therefore hell follows death, because the wicked imitate the Devil. We may also understand by the pale horse the heretics specifically. And power was given to him over the four parts of the earth, to kill with sword, with famine, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth. There are two parts in this world, namely Christ's and the Devil's; but Christ's part is not divided, according to this: One is my dove; [Song 6:8] whereas the Devil's part is divided into four parts: pagans, Jews, heretics, and bad Catholics. Therefore there are as many plagues as there are parts of the Devil. It has already been explained how he kills with sword, with famine, and with death. As for the beasts, by them are represented ungoverned pulsions. So our enemy kills the souls of the reprobates with beasts because when fleshly pulsions are not restrained by the cages of the divine commandments, they are made wild, so to speak, by the impulse of diabolic incitement, and hurl the lives of the wretched down every precipice.

The soaring flight and the swiftness upon its prey of the fourth living creature, namely, the eagle, suggests those plagues that come from above, from the divine wrath for the vindication of the pious and for the punishment of the impious, unless these should turn from their sins through improvement.

And when he had opened the fourth seal.

The opening of the fourth seal refers to the prophets, who foretold the coming of Christ, his passion and resurrection, and the calling of the Gentiles, both in plain speech and through various figures. Therefore our Savior opened the fourth seal when he granted the teachers of the Church understanding of the prophets. But regarding the sayings of the prophets, it is not necessary for us to say anything, since they have been explained by those same teachers. And because not only the things written by the prophets, but also the things done by them, have a spiritual meaning, let us say a few words about some of the deeds accomplished through David, Elijah, and Elisha.

In the book of Kings it is written that when David wished to go forth to battle against the Philistine, he said to Saul: “Your servant was tending his father’s flock, and a lion or a bear would come and seize a ram from the midst of the flock, and I would follow after and strike them, and rescue it from their mouth. And they rose up against me, and I seized them by the jaw and strangled and killed them; for your servant has killed both lion and bear” (1 Sam. 17:34–36). David signifies Christ; by the lion and the bear are meant the persecutors of the Church: by the lion, emperors and the other princes of the earth; by the bear, the Jews are indicated, who persecuted the Church of God; by the ram, however, the martyrs are signified. Therefore the lion and the bear came and took away the ram from the midst of the flock, because persecutors carried off some of the faithful from the Church and killed them for the name of Christ. And just as David, having pursued, struck the lion and the bear and rescued the ram from their mouth, so too our Redeemer pursued certain persecutors when he inflicted upon them in this present age the punishment they deserved, as he did first to Herod, and then a second, and a third, and many others. He struck them when he condemned them to eternal death; he rescued the ram from their mouth because he freed the faithful people from their ravaging. And again they rose up against David, because in the times of the persecutors, when some were punished, others rose up against Christ, to extinguish utterly his name and worship. But David seized them by the jaw, and strangled and killed them (1 Sam. 17:35). By the jaw, which is close to the mouth, are signified the blasphemies of the Jews and pagans. Christ seized the jaw of the persecutors and strangled and killed them when, as emperors came to believe in Christ, every form of pagan worship and error was so choked out that none of the persecutors dared open his mouth to blaspheme Christ; and all were wiped out, as the nations came to believe in Christ.

Likewise, when David went to war against the Philistine, he took with him his staff, which he always had in his hands, and he chose for himself five very clear stones from the stream and put them into the bag that he had with him, and he took the sling in his hand and advanced against the Philistine. By the staff with which a man is supported, the apostles are signified, who, as it were, supported Christ when they completed the work for which he had come into the world, as the apostle Paul says: “For we are God’s co-workers” (1 Cor. 3:9). By his bag, however, his humanity is signified; by the five stones, the five books of Moses, which he put into the bag, because he gave to the man whom he had assumed the knowledge of the five books. By his sling, moreover, we can understand his tongue. The advance of David against the Philistine can be understood in two ways according to allegory: our Savior advanced against the Philistine when he was led into the desert by the Holy Spirit to be tempted by the Devil and to conquer the Devil. David put five stones into the bag, but with one he struck down Goliath; because our Savior possessed equally the knowledge of the five books, but from one, that is, Deuteronomy, he took three testimonies, by which he overcame the Devil’s three temptations. And just as David cast the stone with the sling and killed Goliath, so also our Lord Jesus Christ brought forth testimonies with the tongue of Holy Scripture and defeated the Devil.

Alternatively: David went to the battle against the Philistine; likewise Christ, in order to conquer the Devil, hurried to his Passion. David cast down Goliath with a stone; likewise Christ destroyed the Devil by his own death. And since David did not have a sword in his hand, he took the sword of the Philistine and killed him with his own sword, and cut off his head. The sword of the Devil is death: for through the envy of the Devil, death entered into the world (Wisdom 2:24). This is the sword with which he killed first the man, then humanity, until it was redeemed by Christ. We run upon this sword when we sin; but Christ did not have this sword, because he had not committed sin, nor was deceit found in his mouth (1 Peter 2:22). He was not liable to original sin either, because he had not arisen from the intercourse of a man, who cannot be without sin. Therefore Christ, who did not have death as a debt, borrowed death from the Devil, who was its author, and through it slew that same prince of death. By the head of the Philistine, humanity is signified in this place. David cut off the head of the Philistine, because Christ separated the multitude of the elect from the body of the Devil. He brought it to Jerusalem, because he placed the multitude of the elect in heavenly beatitude, which is called Jerusalem.

But concerning Elijah and Elisha, although their deeds are full of spiritual meanings, let us bring forward only those which are recalled by the Lord in the Gospel. For when the Lord came to Nazareth, his fellow citizens said to him: “The great things we have heard were done in Capernaum, do them here also in your own country.” And he said to them: “Amen I say to you, that there were many widows in the days of Elijah in Israel, when the heaven was shut, and Elijah was sent to none of them, except to Sarepta of Sidon, to a widow woman. And there were many lepers in the days of Elisha in Israel, and none of them was cleansed except Naaman the Syrian” (Luke 4:23-27). In the book of Kings it is written that when Ahab, king of Israel, began to persecute Elijah, at the Lord’s command he went into the desert and sat beside the brook Cherith; and ravens brought him bread and meat in the morning, and bread and meat in the evening, and he drank from the brook (1 Kings 17:1-7). Elijah prefigured Christ; by the brook Cherith, however, we must understand the Law. Cherith is interpreted “falsehood,” not that the Law is a falsehood; for wise teachers are accustomed to present parables to their hearers, so that the things they wish to say may be understood more clearly, and they introduce beasts and birds speaking. If you look only at the words of the parables, you will see that they are falsehood; but if you look at the meaning, you will recognize the truth. Likewise certain legal instructions, if you attend only to the letter, will seem useless to you; if to the spiritual understanding, a great truth will shine forth for you in the letter. Certain legal instructions, therefore, are “falsehood” to the Jews, because they understand them in a carnal way; but to us they are truth, because we strive to understand them spiritually. By the ravens, in fact, are signified the priests of the Jews, darkened by the veil of their hearts; by the meats, the continual sacrifice which was offered morning and evening. The breads, moreover, signify the loaves of the presence, which were constantly set before the Lord; and he drank from the brook, because Christ took delight in the observances of the Law. But after many days the brook dried up, because when Christ came in the flesh and preached the Gospel, the legal observance ceased, and from that time on it was of no profit, as the Lord says: “The Law and the Prophets were until John,” etc. (Matt. 11:13). And again he says to Israel through the prophet: “Do not offer sacrifice any more in vain. Incense is an abomination to me; I will not endure your new moons and your sabbaths; your assemblies are wicked” (Isa. 1:13).

And the Lord said to Elijah: Go to Zarephath of the Sidonians, and stay there; for I have commanded a widow woman there to feed you (1 Kings 17:9). He arose and went to Zarephath. Elijah went to Zarephath, because Christ, abandoning the faithless Jews, passed to the Gentiles through his apostles. Now Zarephath is interpreted as “burned” or “scarcity of bread”; for the Gentiles, who were the city of the Devil and who are signified by Zarephath, were set ablaze by the fire of vices. Of this fire Scripture says: All of you who kindle a fire, girded with flames, walk in the light of your fire and in the flames which you have kindled for yourselves (Isa. 50:11). For they are girded with flames who are burned on every side by the fire of vices, and they are also called “scarcity of bread,” because no preacher had ever come to them to grant them the nourishment of the word of God. And when he came to the gate of the city, a widow woman appeared, gathering wood. The woman has the same meaning as the city; for she signifies the Church gathered from the Gentiles. She was a widow because, through her sins, she had lost God, her husband. And he called her and said to her: Bring me a little water in a vessel, that I may drink. He asked for lesser things so that he might reach greater ones; for in that little water, which refreshes the soul of the thirsty, we can understand the will of those who listen; because as water cools the tongue of the thirsty, so the eager spirit of listeners refreshes the minds of preachers. And as she was going to bring it, he cried after her, saying: Bring me also a morsel of bread in your hand. What we do not know is, as it were, behind our back; therefore Elijah cried after the woman’s back, because holy preachers proclaimed to the Gentiles the God whom they did not know; and therefore in the morsel of bread we can understand the beginnings of faith.

And because they come suitably to the faith who first strive to confess their sins, it is rightly added: “And the woman said to him: As the Lord your God lives, I have no bread, except only as much flour in a jar as a handful can grasp, and a little oil in a flask.” (1 Kings 17:12) The flask was a vessel in which oil was kept. We can, in fact, understand by the flour reason, and by the oil works of mercy. Therefore the Gentile people, recognizing that they had erred gravely, confessed that there was no good in them, except only that they seemed to have a little reason and a little from works of mercy. For the Gentiles had little reason; because they were rational in part, but in the greatest part irrational. For what is more irrational than to say to wood or stone: “You are my god”? And they had also little mercy; because nature itself often pressed them to this, that they might help the wretched. By the vessels in which the flour and oil were contained, their hearts are signified. “Behold, I am gathering two sticks, that I may go in and prepare it for myself and my son, that we may eat and die.” (1 Kings 17:12) The sticks that are gathered in the city have no usefulness except to be burned in the fire. By the sticks, therefore, are signified the errors of the Gentiles invented by diabolical deceit. The woman was gathering two sticks, because the Gentile people, from the teaching of philosophers and poets, gathered various errors, on account of which they would be handed over to perpetual fire. But what does it mean when she says: “That we may eat and die”? For we eat in order to preserve life in the body; but she says that she eats in order that she may die; because the teaching of the Gentiles brings death rather than life.

To whom Elijah answered: “Go and do as you have said; nevertheless, from that little flour make for me a small bread baked under the ashes, and bring it to me; but for yourself and your son you shall make afterwards.” (1 Kings 17:13) By bread, faith is signified; by ashes, however, repentance is often indicated, as blessed Job says to the Lord: “Therefore I reproach myself, and do penance in dust and ashes” (Job 42:6). Therefore bread is covered with ashes when any unbeliever, coming to the faith, first strives to weep over the evils he has done, so that he may approach more fittingly to receive the faith of Christ, which is given in baptism. Therefore Elijah commanded the woman to make bread from the flour and bring it to him, because holy preachers urged the nations to prepare for God the food of faith from the good of reason which they had received from God, and to bring it to them; for each person coming to baptism brings faith to the preacher when, at the priest’s questioning as to what he believes, he confesses. Elijah ate the bread which he had commanded the woman to make, because the progress of the children is the reward of the preachers. For this reason Elijah commanded the woman that she should first prepare bread for him, and afterwards for herself and her son; because the conversion of a sinner is first credited to the preacher, but afterwards the converted person prepares bread for himself, when, exercising himself in good works, he obtains that he become an heir of the heavenly homeland. And when Elijah says: “The jar of flour shall not fail, nor the flask of oil be diminished until the day when the Lord will send rain upon the earth” (1 Kings 17:14), this signifies that faith and good works will not fail from the hearts of the elect, until the Lord shall come to judgment with all his saints.

Similarly, Elisha also prefigured Christ, and Naaman represented the people of the nations. There were many lepers in Israel, and none of them was cleansed except Naaman the Syrian, because when Christ came in the flesh, both the Jews and the Gentiles were surrounded by the leprosy of their sins; but as the Jews remained in their wickedness, the nations were cleansed from the leprosy of their sins. Therefore Elisha ordered Naaman, saying: Go and wash seven times in the Jordan, and your flesh will receive health, and you will be made clean (2 Kings 5:10). He went and washed seven times in the Jordan, and his flesh was restored like the flesh of a little child, and he was cleansed from the leprosy. The water of the Jordan prefigured baptism, because in it Christ was baptized. Naaman was washed in the waters of the Jordan and cleansed from leprosy; for the people of the nations have been purified from the leprosy of their sins by the water of holy baptism. And his sevenfold washing prefigured the sevenfold Holy Spirit, through whose working the remission of sins is given in baptism; for just as the body is visibly washed by the waters of baptism, so the soul is invisibly cleansed from all sins through the working of the Holy Spirit. But Gehazi, who received the payment for the healing from Naaman and inherited his leprosy, signifies those who sell to men the teaching of their preaching: these the Lord in the Gospel calls not shepherds but hirelings (Jn. 10:12). Therefore Elisha bestowed healing, and Gehazi received payment; because from those whom the divine mercy saves, perverse teachers exact the price of their healing. And therefore they become heirs of their leprosy, because by remaining in the evils which these others have despised through the grace of God, they draw upon themselves everlasting condemnation. Concerning the opening of the four seals, which certainly refers to the Old Testament, we have said a few things out of many, so that we might show that the opening of the seals is nothing other than the revealing of spiritual meanings in the Old Testament, which has been made for us through Christ. And it follows:

It is the breaking of the fourth seal and the beginning of the release from the sin of Adam's transgression. For this release is the indicator of reconciliation with God. For if "our sins separate us from God", as Isaiah says (Isa. 59:2), then their removal brings us back into fellowship. But what is the remedy? The wounds of Christ, through which we have been freed (see 1 Peter 2:24; Isa. 53:5). For since we were condemned by the pleasure of tasting, we have been healed by its opposites. Opposite to pleasure are the wounds, which bear the painful sensation, all of which Christ endured on our behalf, through which we were led to the corruption of death, but He endured it through opposites: through obedience, disobedience (see Rom. 5:19); through painful submission, pleasure; through the brave placing of His hands upon the cross, which had rashly touched the forbidden tree.

Of which it is said to have occurred, by the command of the fourth living creature saying, "Come." I looked, and behold, a pale horse; and the one sitting on it was named Death, and Hades followed with him. And they were given authority over a fourth of the earth. The pale horse is a symbol of wrath; for the bile is pale green, and so it is called by physicians.

Death and Hades were indeed sent forth spiritually to overthrow the deceitful demons and to exact justice for the destruction of humanity. However, since the saving work of Christ's passion had not yet been accomplished through the Revelation, by which He atoned all the sins committed against us, the complete destruction of the demons had not yet occurred; rather, only a quarter part had been destroyed.

This destruction is metaphorically called a slaughter and famine by those who long ago worshipped them; and death, the end of their tyranny, is brought about through death itself, and their annihilation by the beasts of the earth;

beasts of the earth being the passions of pride and vanity in the demons. Though these demons are earthly by nature, as they delight in the earthly passions that afflict those on earth, even though they have a spiritual nature, they are weakened and consumed as they are cast out from their dominion over humanity.

"And when He had opened the fourth seal, I heard the fourth living creature saying, Come and see. And, lo, a pale horse; and he who sate upon him was named Death." For the pale horse and he who sate upon him bore the name of Death. These same things also the Lord had promised among the rest of the coming destructions-great pestilences and deaths; since, moreover, he says:-

"And hell followed him." That is, it was waiting for the devouring of many unrighteous souls. This is the pale horse.

This sequence of events has happened before and reflects also contemporary occurrences. For as Eusebius says in the eighth chapter of the ninth book of his Ecclesiastical History, at the height of the persecution, when Maximinus was Roman emperor, both famine and pestilence along with other things fell upon them, so that such an innumerable multitude perished that they could not be buried. At that time indeed the Christians zealously undertook the task of burying the dead and by their love of humanity led those who had been deceived to the recognition of the truth. Moreover, the Armenians resisted the Romans, he says, so that many were killed with the sword and the bodies of the dead were eaten by dogs. Finally, those left alive began to kill the dogs, fearing that they themselves might die and that the living would become their tombs. For it was not impossible that even wild animals shared the same meal with dogs on account of the abundance of food. We know that even in our own times similar things have happened.

And behold, a pale horse, etc. Heretics who mask themselves as Catholics, worthy of the inhabiting death, drag after them a host of the lost. For the devil and his ministers are metaphorically called death and hell, as they are the cause of death and hell for many. It can also be simply understood that here the spiritually dead, there eternal punishment follows.

And power was given to him over a fourth of the earth. Behold, the madness of Arius, born in Alexandria, reached as far as the Gallic Ocean, not only persecuting the pious bestially with famine of the word of God but also with physical sword. Another version translates it as a fourth part, because the three evil horses, relying on the devil as their leader, ride against the fourth cavalry of the Church.

And behold a pale horse, and the one who sat upon it, his name was Death, and Hell followed him.

These things that are said about the fourth rider seem to refer to Antichrist; but since we have interpreted the previous three riders in a good sense, so that they might fit with the opening of the three seals, the logical order compels us also to understand this one in a good sense, insofar as it agrees with the opening of the fourth seal, which we have shown refers to the prophets. Therefore, the pale horse signifies the prophets. Now paleness comes to human beings in various ways: sometimes from fear, sometimes from sickness, sometimes from death taking hold of the whole body, and in many other ways people grow pale. Therefore the prophets, who foretold to the sinning people that they would be given over to plunder and the sword and destruction, are not inappropriately said to have had a pale color. But the rider of this horse is the Lord, who dwelt in his prophets. Yet it seems very harsh that he is said to have had the name of Death; for he himself is the life of all his elect, just as he himself says: “I am the life” (Jn. 14:6). But if we examine the divine Scriptures carefully, we shall find that our Lord Jesus Christ is also called Death. For just as he is the life of all the elect, to whom he daily grants eternal life, so he can also be called the death of the depraved, whom, because of their crimes, he daily hands over to everlasting death; for he has the power to destroy both soul and body in Gehenna (Matt. 10:28). Therefore he is said to have had the name of Death, because he brought death upon the sinning Israelite people, as he clearly shows in the Song of Deuteronomy, when he says: “A fire is kindled in my wrath, and it shall burn to the lowest parts of hell [inferni]; and it shall devour the earth with its produce, and burn the foundations of the mountains. I will heap evils upon them, and I will spend my arrows on them: they shall be wasted with hunger, and birds shall devour them with a most bitter bite. I will send the teeth of beasts among them, with the fury of those that trail upon the earth and of serpents. Outside the sword shall lay them waste, and inside terror,” and so on (Deut. 32:22–25). Hell [infernus] was following this horseman, because hell swallowed up all those who despised the threats of the prophets which they had proclaimed from the mouth of the Lord to the people. Therefore it also continues:

And power was given to him over the four parts of the earth to kill with sword, and with famine, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth.

By the four parts of the earth the whole land of Israel is indicated. But how they were consumed by sword, and famine, and death, and the beasts of the earth, the books of the Prophets and of the Kings clearly show. We must indeed inquire why the opening of four seals refers to the Old Testament, but that of three refers to the New. For there are four elements by which, according to the body, we survive; therefore the Old Testament is not inappropriately placed under the number four, because the law of Moses promised to the Hebrew people nothing other than things that refer to the four elements. But the New Testament is placed under the number three, because the faith of the Holy Trinity, without which we cannot be saved, is especially commended in it.

In the pale horse we perceive evil people who never cease to incite persecutions. And these three horses are one, who came out after the white horse and against it. And they have as their rider the devil, who is death. And so, the three horses are interpreted to be war, famine, and pestilence. For in the Gospel, the Lord foretold of these things, and they have already occurred, and as the day of judgment draws nearer will occur even more.

Green horse indicates death and ruin, which will come in the end of times upon the inhabitants of the earth because of their evil works.

There are two parts in the world, that which belongs to God and that of the devil. That which belongs to the devil is further divided into three parts, which are both within and outside [the church]. These are the Gentiles, false brothers and those separated by open error or schism. And these three parts are those that war against the one. This one is said to consist of three fourths, either because it believes in the threefold unity or because it is distinguished into orders by the goodly variation of three vocations, that of the virgins, of the widows and of the married. He says that now power is given in these three fourths. He speaks of the church which is one, and because the threefold vocation relates to one head, it consists from the three fourths in the stability of a square. As it says, "built upon the foundation of the apostles and the prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the chief cornerstone." He foretells that the church will be placed into stress by the attacks of evil people, from the Gentiles, from false brothers and by heretical depravity. And this is also to be recognized in the number of the messengers, that the very same good would oppose three evil enemies—the red horse with the sword, the second, black horse with the balance, and the third, pale horse with the sign of death, for the sword signifies war, the black horse famine and the pale horse death. And since he mentions the plagues one by one, he foretells all the future outbreaks of plagues by enumerating them in or through the third, the names of the beasts being added. We may remain undecided whether the speech is literal or figurative. For a visible sword is commonly used against the body, while a spiritual sword is used against the soul. Similarly concerning famine, it can mean here either a famine of the Word of God or a famine that affects the body. And likewise concerning death, it can here mean either eternal death that affects souls or that temporal death that concerns bodies. Nonetheless, it is clear that the fourth good part, which is opposed by the three evils, is made to struggle in time by all of these visible persecutions. For those who are called according to the purpose of the will of God shall remain in the perfect number of the elect, especially those whom he wills to be preserved by the inviolate sacraments of the wine and oil. For when he said, "Do not harm the wine and oil," he was indicating the price of redemption in the wine and the anointing of baptism in the oil. Indeed, the Lord clearly said in the Gospel, "Father, those whom you have given to me, I have guarded, and none of them is lost but the son of perdition."

And when he had opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar of God the souls of them that were slain for the word of God, and for the testimony which they held. By the souls of the slain we understand the souls of all the elect, who are oppressed with either physical or spiritual attacks from the reprobates; for there are two kinds of martyrs: one apparent, the other hidden. By the altar we understand Christ: we offer on him our sacrifices to God the Father when, imitating his only begotten Son, we appear in his sight as a living sacrifice. Therefore the souls of the slain are under the altar because they are under our Mediator; but if by the altar we understand the elect themselves, they are under themselves, because they have not yet been clothed in immortality of the body.

QUESTION: What is meant by I saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain for the word of God? ANSWER: He who had said that the Church was manifoldly afflicted in the present, also mentions the glory of souls after the suffering of bodies. He says, I saw them under the altar, that is, in the secret place of eternal praise; for the golden altar that is inside and near the coffer of the Lord's body, does not offer the Lord flesh and blood like an exterior altar, but only the incense of praise; and those who now present their bodies as a living sacrifice, [Rom. 12:1] will then, when the bonds of their flesh are broken, sacrifice to him the sacrifice of praise. [Cf. Ps. 115:16-17] However, there could also be a hyperbaton, so that he would not have seen them under the altar, but slain under the altar, that is, under the testification of the name of Christ, in the same way as it is said about the Maccabees, They fell under the covenant of God. [2 Macc. 7:36 acc. to LXX] Now, my dearest son, [...]

And when he had opened the fifth seal, etc. Because he had said that the Church is greatly afflicted in the present, he also speaks of the glory of souls after the punishment of bodies. I saw, he says, them under the altar, that is, in the sanctuary of eternal praise. For the golden altar, placed inside and near the ark of the Lord's body, does not offer flesh and blood, but only the incense of praise to the Lord. And those who now present their bodies as a living sacrifice will then, with the bonds of the flesh broken, sacrifice the sacrifice of praise to Him (Ps. 116). It can also be through a hyperbaton, that he saw not under the altar but those killed under the altar, that is, under the testimony of Christ's name, as it is said of the Maccabees: They fell under the covenant of God (2 Macc. 7).

And when he had opened the fifth seal.

The opening of the fifth seal, and of the sixth and seventh, as we have already said, belongs to the opening of the New Testament; and although the New Testament is the opening of the Old Testament, still many things are set down in it obscurely, which must be explained. Therefore the Savior opened the fifth, sixth, and seventh seals when he made known to the teachers of the Church those things which he himself had spoken in parables and had carried out in a figurative way. But concerning the exposition of the New Testament it is not necessary for us to say anything, since it has been wonderfully and abundantly explained by the holy fathers. Therefore the opening of the fifth seal refers to the martyrs: Christ then opened the fifth seal when he revealed to the teachers of the Church those things which he had spoken, through parables and certain figures, about the persecution of the martyrs and their glorification. He also opened the fifth seal when he bestowed on them the heavenly glory which he had promised, and made them glorious in the world among human beings.

I saw under the altar of God the souls of those slain because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus which they had.

The altar of God is Christ: therefore the souls of the saints rest beneath the altar, because just as the members are placed beneath the head and cling to it, so also the souls of the saints, established in heavenly glory, are subject to Christ the Savior and are bound to him through the union of the members.

But for those who are white and unstained within, it is most suitable to use white and simple garments. Clearly and plainly, therefore, Daniel the prophet says, "Thrones were set, and upon them sat one like the Ancient of days, and His vesture was white as snow." The Apocalypse says also that the Lord Himself appeared wearing such a robe. It says also, "I saw the souls of those that had witnessed, beneath the altar, and there was given to each a white robe." And if it were necessary to seek for any other colour, the natural colour of truth should suffice.

But since I know, beloved brethren, that very many are eager, either on account of the burden or the pain of smarting wrongs, to be quickly avenged of those who act harshly and rage against them, we must not withhold the fact in the furthest particular, that placed as we are in the midst of these storms of a jarring world, and, moreover, the persecutions both of Jews or Gentiles, and heretics, we may patiently wait for the day of (God's) vengeance, and not hurry to revenge our suffering with a querulous haste, since it is written, "Wait ye upon me, saith the Lord, in the day of my rising up for a testimony; for my judgment is to the congregations of the nations, that I may take hold on the kings, and pour out upon them my fury." The Lord commands us to wait, and to bear with brave patience the day of future vengeance; and He also speaks in the Apocalypse, saying, "Seal not the sayings of the prophecy of this book: for now the time is at hand for them that persevere in injuring to injure, and for him that is filthy to be filthy still; but for him that is righteous to do things still more righteous, and likewise for him that is holy to do things still more holy. Behold, I come quickly; and my reward is with me, to render to every man according to his deeds." Whence also the martyrs, crying out and hastening with grief breaking forth to their revenge, are bidden still to wait, and to give patience for the times to be fulfilled and the martyrs to be completed. "And when He had opened," says he, "the fifth seal, I saw under the altar of God the souls of them that were slain for the word of God, and for their testimony; and they cried with a loud voice, saying, How long, O Lord, holy and true, dost Thou not judge and avenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth? And there were given to them each white robes; and it was said unto them that they should rest yet for a little season, until the number of their fellow-servants and brethren is fulfilled, who afterwards shall be slain after their example."

Of the benefits of martyrdom. In the Proverbs of Solomon: "The faithful martyr delivers his soul from evils." Also in the same place: "Then shall the righteous stand in great boldness against them who have afflicted them, and who took away their labours. When they see them, they shall be disturbed with a horrible fear; and they shall wonder at the suddenness of their unhoped-for salvation, saying among themselves, repenting and groaning with distress of spirit, These are they whom some time we had in derision, and in the likeness of a proverb; we fools counted their life madness, and their end without honour. How are they reckoned among the children of God, and their lot among the saints! Therefore we have wandered from the way of truth, and the light of righteousness has not shined upon us, and the sun has not risen upon us. We have been wearied in the way of iniquity and of perdition, and we have walked through difficult solitudes; but we have not known the way of the Lord. What hath pride profited us? or what hath the boasting of riches brought to us? All these things have passed away as a shadow." Of this same thing in the cxvth Psalm: "Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of His saints." Also in the cxxvth Psalm: "They who sow in tears shall reap in joy. Walking they walked, and wept as they cast their seeds; but coming they shall come in joy, raising up their laps." Of this same thing in the Gospel according to John: "He who loveth his life shall lose it; and he that hateth his life in this world shall find it to life eternal." Also in the same place: "But when they shall deliver you up, take no thought what ye shall speak; for it is not ye who speak, but the Spirit of your Father which speaketh in you." Also in the same place: "The hour shall come, that every one that killeth you shall think he doeth service to God l but they shall do this also because they have not known the Father nor me." Of this same matter, according to Matthew: "Blessed are they which shall suffer persecution for righteousness' sake; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." Also in the same place: "Fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul; but rather fear Him which is able to kill the soul and body in Gehenna." Also in the same place: "Whosoever shall confess me before men, him also will I confess before my Father which is in heaven; but he who shall deny me before men, him also will I deny before my Father which is in heaven. And he that shall endure to the end, the same shall be saved." Of this same thing, according to Luke: "Blessed shall ye be when men shall hate you, and shall separate you (from their company), and shall drive you out, and shall speak evil of your name, as wicked, for the Son of man's sake. Rejoice in that day, and exult; for, lo, your reward is great in heaven." Also in the same place: "Verily I say unto you, There is no man that leaveth house, or parents, or brethren, or wife, or children, for the sake of the kingdom of God, and does not receive seven times as much in this present time, but in the world to come life everlasting." Of this same thing in the Apocalypse: "And when he had opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar of God the souls of them that were slain on account of the word of God and His testimony. And they cried with a loud voice, saying, How long, O Lord, holy and true, dost Thou not judge and avenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth? And unto every one of them were given white robes; and it was said to them, that they should rest still for a short time, until the number of their fellow-servants, and of their brethren, should be fulfilled, and they who shall afterwards be slain, after their example." Also in the same place: "After these things I saw a great crowd, which no one among them could number, from every nation, and from every tribe, and from every people and tongue, standing before the throne and before the Lamb; and they were clothed with white robes, and palms were in their hands. And they said with a loud voice, Salvation to our God, that sitteth upon the throne, and to the Lamb. And one of the elders answered and said to me, What are these which are clothed with white robes? who are they, and whence have they come? And I said unto him, My lord, thou knowest. And he said unto me, These are they who have come out of great tribulation, and have washed their robes, and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. Therefore they are before the throne of God, and serve Him day and night in His temple; and He who sitteth upon the throne shall dwell among them. They shall neither hunger nor thirst ever; and neither shall the sun fall upon them, nor shall they suffer any heat: for the Lamb who is in the midst of the throne shall protect them, and shall lead them to the fountains of the waters of life; and God shall wipe away every tear from their eyes." Also in the same place: "He who shall overcome I will give him to eat of the tree of life, which as in the paradise of my God." Also in the same place: "Be thou faithful even unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life." Also in the same place: "Blessed shall they be who shall watch, and shall keep their garments, lest they walk naked, and they see their shame." Of this same thing, Paul in the second Epistle to Timothy: "I am now offered up, and the time of my assumption is at hand. I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith. There now remains for me a crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will give me in that day; and not only to me, but to all also who love His appearing." Of this same thing to the Romans: "We are the sons of God: but if sons and heirs of God, we are also joint-heirs with Christ; if we suffer together, that we may also be magnified together." Of this same thing in the cxviiith Psalm: "Blessed are they who are undefiled in the way, and walk in the law of the Lord. Blessed are they who search into His testimonies."

Therefore, beloved brethren, although this is altogether of the Lord's promise and gift, and although it is given from on high, and is not received except by His will, and moreover, can neither be expressed in words nor described by speech, nor can be satisfied by any kind of powers of eloquence, still such will be your benevolence, such will be your charity and love, as to be mindful of me when the Lord shall begin to glorify martyrdom in your experience. That holy altar encloses you within itself, that great dwelling-place of the venerable Name encloses you within itself, as if in the folds of a heart's embrace: the powers of the everlasting age sustain you, and that by which you shall ever reign and shall ever conquer. O blessed ones! and such as truly have your sins remitted, if, however, you who are Christ's peers ever have sinned! O blessed ones! whom the blood of the Lord has dyed from the beginning of the world, and whom such a brightness of snowy clothing has deservedly invested, and the whiteness of the enfolding robe has adorned! Finally, I myself seem to myself to behold already, and, as far as is possible to the mind of man, that divine and illustrious thing occurs to my eyes and view. I seem, I say to myself, already to behold, that that truly noble army accompanies the glory and the path of their Christ. The blessed band of victors will go before His face; and as the crowds become denser, the whole army, illuminated as it were by the rising of the sun, will ascribe to Him the power. And would that it might be the lot of such a poor creature as myself to see that sight! But the Lord can do what He is believed not to deny to your petitions.

I saw under the altar the souls that have been killed—of the prophets, the apostles, and the saints.

Therefore, the fifth salvation of the Lord was granted to humanity, which opened the fifth seal of the Lord and brought us liberation from sins and reconciliation with God. The bonds and wounds, by which the Lord was bound and brought before Pilate, and which He suffered from Pilate who had a half-hearted reverence (see Matt. 27), were therefore overcome. Regarding these matters, Isaiah spoke of the plagues, saying that when the Lord was asked by the divine angels, "What are these wounds in the midst of your hands?" He replied, "Those with which I was wounded in the house of my beloved." (Zech. 13:6) For these wounds healed our wounds, which we received when we were going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among robbers, who bound us and wounded us, leaving us half dead, according to the parable of Luke. (Luke 10:30) But He has also loosened our bonds, the cords of sin by which we were bound; for the prophet says that "the cords of sinners were entangled around me." (Ps. 118:61) Therefore, the Devil, acting wickedly on his own accord, was unaware, and in the Lord's rebukes, he thrust the sword against himself and fell from his poorly established authority.

When this happened, since previously the saints who had testified in the old days had not yet experienced such things against Christ; although He was spat upon, struck, and slapped, these acts were done in secret, in the unlawful council of the high priests, with only the servants and those summoned to the council as witnesses, and they still remained silent, remembering no one but themselves; but when they saw the Lord bound, scourged publicly by Pilate, and before all the Jewish people, they then rose up together, and having become witnesses against their master, they also remembered themselves.

For he said, I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain because of the word of God and because of the testimony they had maintained. He said, I saw the souls of the martyrs who held the highest place; for they were above the heavenly altar. Then he also says by which martyrs, having been slain, he speaks on behalf of the devotion of the ancient word and of the church, or rather the synagogue, which they had. For not only do the martyrs die for themselves, but they make the benefit common; for their courage becomes an encouragement to the rest, and the knowledge of God was built up by the blood of the saints.

For who could follow the soul of a martyr, which, having passed over all the "powers of the air," stretches toward the heavenly altar? For there the "souls of the martyrs" are said to be placed "beneath the altar" of God, "crying out" day and night, saying: "How long, O Lord, who art just and true, dost Thou not avenge our blood upon those who dwell on the earth?" For there, being placed, they stand in attendance upon the divine sacrifices. But blessed are they who merit these things. Blessed are they whose heart, when they depart from the world, does not tremble on account of sin, whom no dread of transgressions terrifies as they go on to the Lord.

How is it that the region of paradise, which was revealed in the spirit through John as being "under the altar," contains no other souls but those of the martyrs? How is it that Perpetua, that bravest martyr of Christ, on the day of her death saw only the souls of the martyrs in paradise, unless it be that the sword that guarded the entrance allowed none to pass save those that had died in Christ and not in Adam? Those who die this new death for God, and violently as Christ did, are welcomed into a special abode. Here, then, is the difference between pagan and Christian in death: If you lay down your life for God as the Paraclete recommends, then it will not be of some gentle fever in a soft bed but in the torture of martyrdom. You must take up your cross and follow him, according to the precept of Christ. The only key that unlocks the gates of paradise is your own blood.

The fact that the soul is invisible flows from the nature of its corporeal substance and is determined by its own nature. Besides, of its very nature it is destined to be invisible to certain things.… And so, an object may be invisible to one being and quite clearly seen by another without any prejudice to the corporeality of the object itself that is seen by one and not by the other. The sun is a bodily substance, being made of fire. The eagle gazes at it steadily, but it is invisible to the owl, but the owl does not deny the object seen by the eagle. In such fashion, the bodily substance of the soul may generally be invisible to the eye of flesh, but it is clearly perceived by the spirit. Thus John "in the spirit" saw "the souls of them that were slain for the word of God."

Thus John, being "in the Spirit" of God, beheld plainly the souls of the martyrs.

How is it, then, that the region of Paradise, which as revealed to John in the Spirit lay under the altar, displays no other souls as in it besides the souls of the martyrs? How is it that the most heroic martyr Perpetua on the day of her passion saw only her fellow-martyrs there, in the revelation which she received of Paradise, if it were not that the sword which guarded the entrance permitted none to go in thereat, except those who had died in Christ and not in Adam? A new death for God, even the extraordinary one for Christ, is admitted into the reception-room of mortality, specially altered and adapted to receive the new-comer.

In the Revelation of John, again, the order of these times is spread out to view, which "the souls of the martyrs" are taught to wait for beneath the altar, whilst they earnestly pray to be avenged and judged: (taught, I say, to wait), in order that the world may first drink to the dregs the plagues that await it out of the vials of the angels, and that the city of fornication may receive from the ten kings its deserved doom, and that the beast Antichrist with his false prophet may wage war on the Church of God; and that, after the casting of the devil into the bottomless pit for a while, the blessed prerogative of the first resurrection may be ordained from the thrones; and then again, after the consignment of him to the fire, that the judgment of the final and universal resurrection may be determined out of the books.

For unquestionably he, who has exhibited to our sight the martyrs' hitherto disembodied souls resting under the altar, was quite able to display them before our eyes rising without a body of flesh.

Who, pray, are these so blessed conquerors, but martyrs in the strict sense of the word? For indeed theirs are the victories whose also are the fights; theirs, however, are the fights whose also is the blood. But the souls of the martyrs both peacefully rest in the meantime under the altar, and support their patience by the assured hope of revenge; and, clothed in their robes, wear the dazzling halo of brightness, until others also may fully share in their glory.

"And when He had opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain." He relates that he saw under the altar of God, that is, under the earth, the souls of them that were slain. For both heaven and earth are called God's altar, as saith the law, commanding in the symbolical form of the truth two altars to be made,-a golden one within, and a brazen one without. But we perceive that the golden altar is thus called heaven, by the testimony that our Lord bears to it; for He says, "When thou bringest thy gift to the altar" (assuredly our gifts are the prayers which we offer), "and there rememberest that thy brother hath ought against thee, leave there thy gift before the altar." Assuredly prayers ascend to heaven. Therefore heaven is understood to be the golden altar which was within; for the priests also were accustomed to enter once in the year-as they who had the anointing-to the golden altar, the Holy Spirit signifying that Christ should do this once for all. As the golden altar is acknowledged to be heaven, so also by the brazen altar is understood the earth, under which is the Hades,-a region withdrawn from punishments and fires, and a place of repose for the saints, wherein indeed the righteous are seen and heard by the wicked, but they cannot be carried across to them.

And they cried with a loud voice, saying: How long, O Lord (holy and true) dost thou not revenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth? What does it mean that the souls of the saints ask for revenge for their blood about the persecutions, if not that they are waiting for the day of the last judgment? It is not by the stomach being drawn by the gullet that the words of the souls are formed, but their great cry is a great longing. However, since a mind that is asking for something is generally moved in a different way from a mind that is asked for something, and since the souls of the saints cling to God in such a way that they rest in clinging to him, how can they be said to ask for this, while it is certain that they are ignorant of neither the will of God nor things that will happen? One should know then that the reason why they are said to ask something from him while they are in him is not that they long for a revenge because it is in disagreement with the will of him whom they see, but they receive from him himself the task to ask from him what they know he wants to do.

SINCE THE LORD HAS CERTAINLY TAUGHT THAT WE MUST PRAY FOR OUR ENEMIES, WHAT DOES IT MEAN THAT IN THE APOCALYPSE THE SOULS OF THE SLAIN SEEK TO BE AVENGED AGAINST THEM, ASKING GOD FOR VENGEANCE (Matt. 5:44; Rev. 6:10)? — For the souls of the slain cry out in this way, asking to be avenged, just as the blood of Abel cried out from the earth (Gen. 4:10). Therefore, it is the causes themselves that are said to cry out, when they cannot actually speak. For what does spilled blood ask, if not to be avenged, crying out not with a voice but with its very meaning? Likewise, a work is said to praise its maker by the very fact that it delights the one who looks upon it. The saints are not so impatient that they would press for something to happen immediately which they know will take place at its appointed time, something that can neither be anticipated nor delayed. By saying this, he wished to show that God will avenge the blood of His saints, so that, because He now appears so patient, the wicked war waged against the saints would not be thought to remain unpunished; and therefore, while striking terror into those who persecute God’s servants, He might also encourage those who suffer for His sake to persevere. For the soul of the sufferer is revealed when it hears that the Mighty One will avenge it. It bears hope within itself when it hears that its death displeases the Judge: then it is certain that it is innocent. And God indeed is merciful and patient, but in due measure. He waits for the wicked to believe and for sinners to improve themselves; otherwise, they will be punished, because they have despised the long patience of God. He has shown an example of this even in the time when mercy is proclaimed, so that He might not appear unfeeling rather than patient, as though neither anyone’s suffering nor compassion could move Him. Therefore it is that He says through the prophet, “I have kept silent; shall I always keep silent?” (Isa. 42:14); and the Lord says, “Will not God, then, bring about justice for His servants who cry out to Him day and night?” (Luke 18:7). They cry out in just the way we have said above. Therefore, if any Christian exacts justice for a time, not harshly and not with bloodshed, he does not sin; yet he will have done better if he leaves it to God the Judge.

SINCE THE LORD HAS CERTAINLY TAUGHT THAT WE MUST PRAY FOR OUR ENEMIES, WHAT DOES IT MEAN THAT IN THE APOCALYPSE THE SOULS OF THE SLAIN SEEK TO BE AVENGED AGAINST THEM, ASKING GOD FOR VENGEANCE (Matt. 5:44; Rev. 6:10)? — Since the Apocalypse, while testifying that future evils and tribulations will come as the result of unbelief and a wicked life, with God as avenger, also shows, by a hidden, inward vision, a model of the punishments for each sin, in order to prove that no wickedness or cruelty will remain unpunished, it says that the souls of the slain ask day and night to be avenged. This is not in fact contrary: for God, who gave this law, has promised that He will avenge Himself on the day of judgment, so that He may seem to have given this command for the present which excuses the souls of the slain if, now placed there, they ask for the day of vengeance. And yet, to speak more accurately, it is the cause that is to be understood as crying out. That in itself is never silent, but always demands vengeance: as God says to Cain, “The blood of your brother cries out to me from the earth.” What does this mean if not that the cause of the crime cries out, desiring to be avenged? For if we say, because of its produce, “The earth praises the Lord,” although it has neither voice nor understanding, so also, because of evil deeds, blood is said to cry out. For they were certainly not so impatient nor so ignorant as to ask to be avenged before the future day of judgment, lest they should request that something be done which they knew could not happen before the appointed time. And similarly the Savior says, “Will not God bring about justice for His elect who cry to Him day and night?”

And they cried out with a loud voice, saying. The great cry of souls signifies their immense desire for what they know the Lord wishes to do. For it is not proper to believe they desire anything against God's will, as their desires depend on His will.

How long, O Lord, holy and true, will You not judge and avenge, etc.? They do not pray out of hatred for their enemies, for whom they interceded in this world, but out of love for justice, which they, as near the Judge, harmoniously support. They pray for the day of judgment to come, when the kingdom of sin will be destroyed and the resurrection of extinguished bodies will arrive. For we too, although commanded to pray for our enemies, nonetheless say to the Lord in our prayers: Your kingdom come (Matt. 6).

And they cried out with a loud voice, saying: “How long, holy and true Lord, do you not judge and do not avenge our blood on those who dwell on the earth?”

Since Scripture commands that we are not to return evil for evil (Rom. 12:17), and the Lord says in the Gospel: “Love your enemies, and do good to those who hate you” (Matt. 5:44), what does it mean that the saints, established in heaven, seek vengeance on their enemies? But we know that the saints of God desire the last day, on which they will receive from the Lord both their bodies and the full reward of their labors. For the Lord showed that this day should be desired by his disciples when he foretold the signs of the day of judgment, saying: “But when you see these things happening, look up and lift up your heads, because your redemption is drawing near” (Luke 21:28). And in the Lord’s Prayer we continually ask, “Your kingdom come” (Matt. 6:10). But because the resurrection and glorification of the saints will occur on the day of judgment, and the day of judgment will be condemnation for the wicked, the saints ask for vengeance on their enemies when they ask that the day of the Lord may come, because on that day they will be condemned with eternal condemnation. Yet here a question arises: why do the saints desire the day of the Lord, when the prophet says, “Woe to those who desire the day of the Lord” (Amos 5:18)? For we know that the day of the Lord is the condemnation of the wicked, as we have already said. And what need was there for the prophet to say, “Woe to those who desire the day of the Lord,” when no wicked person is found who either desires his own death or the day of the Lord, since he fears being condemned in it? And because what the prophet said is true, we must investigate what it signifies. Indeed, the condemnation of the wicked is their sins: whoever therefore desires to go to bed with a prostitute, desires his own condemnation; whoever desires to get drunk, desires his own condemnation; whoever desires to steal a horse or an ox or anything like that, desires his own condemnation; whoever desires to inflict some harm on his neighbor, desires his own condemnation. Therefore, since the condemnation of the wicked will be the day of judgment, whoever desires to commit those crimes for which he will be condemned on the day of judgment, desires the day of the Lord, that is, he desires his own condemnation.

[The psalmist begs] that the Lord avenge the blood of the faithful, who endured martyrdom for his name. Vengeance is the means by which force and injustice are repelled by just retribution. But there the prayer seems to be directed toward the conversion of the enemy. For when temporal vengeance is exacted from them in this world, they escape the destruction of eternal damnation; it is in this sense that we read in Revelation that the souls of martyrs under God's altar demand to be avenged by divine decree. This vengeance is to be interpreted as we have defined it, for saintly people do not seek a cruel vengeance since they accept the precept "Pray for your enemies, do good to those that hate you," and the like. Finally the Lord himself, who executes most powerfully his own commands, spoke these words on the cross: "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do."

Until when, Lord, do you not judge—This shows that he serves the life of the soul and its memory.

And they cried out with a loud voice, saying: "How long, O Master, holy and true, will You not judge and avenge our blood from those who dwell on the earth?" They directed their prayer not against men, but against the demons who dwell among earthly passions; for it was not characteristic of the love of the saints to rise up against their fellow kindred, but against those who lead men into destruction against them.

This ought not be understood in a carnal manner, as though they were inflamed by animosity and wished revenge. We know that we are to love our enemies through an abundance of love, but it is manifest that they prayed against the kingdom of sin and were praying out of a desire for that kind of kingdom for which we say, "Thy kingdom come!"

Our hope is that we may sooner reign and not be slaves any longer. Even if it were not prescribed to ask in prayer for the coming of his kingdom, we would, of our own accord, have expressed this desire in our eagerness to embrace the object of our hope. With indignation the souls of the martyrs beneath the altar cry aloud to the Lord, "How long, O Lord, will you refrain from avenging our blood on those who dwell on the earth?" For at least from the end of the world vengeance for them is ordained. Indeed, as quickly as possible, O Lord, may your kingdom come! This is the prayer of Christians; this shall bring shame to the heathens; this shall bring joy to the angels; it is for the coming of this kingdom that we are harassed now, or rather, it is for this coming that we pray.

The souls of the martyrs beneath the altar cry in jealousy unto the Lord "How long, Lord, dost Thou not avenge our blood on the inhabitants of the earth? " for, of course, their avenging is regulated by the end of the age.

He who sees all things would have us to know that these saints, therefore-that is, the souls of the slain-are asking for vengeance for their blood, that is, of their body, from those that dwell upon the earth; but because in the last time, moreover, the reward of the saints will be perpetual, and the condemnation of the wicked shall come, it was told them to wait. And for a solace to their body, there were given unto each of them white robes. They received, says he, white robes, that is, the gift of the Holy Spirit.

And white robes were given to every one of them one; and it was said to them, that they should rest yet for a little time, till the number of their fellow servants, and of their brethren, who are to be slain, even as they, should be filled up. What is meant by the white robes but the reward of martyrs? Indeed, before the resurrection, the elect are said to have received one robe each because so far they enjoy eternal happiness only in the soul. Note also that the words of the souls are what lovers desire; then it is the role of God to reply that they should wait for their brethren to be gathered together, and it is theirs to willingly instill the patience to wait into their minds. So they are wishing for the resurrection of bodies, but they hear that they should wait willingly for their brethren to be gathered together.

In this passage the saints are shown praying for the consummation of the world. Therefore, they are told to have patience until the completion of the brothers, so that "apart from them they would not be made perfect," as the apostle says. The white robes reveal the brightness that appears on them because of their virtues, in which they are clothed, although they "had not yet received the promises." And so, putting away every dullness, in the hope for these things, which they see in the spirit, they rightly rejoice, resting in the bosom of Abraham. For to many of the saints it is said that each receives a place worthy of the doer of virtue through which they are judged of their future glory.

The spirits of the elect who dwell in that heavenly city can be understood as asking in the name of the Savior on their own behalf too, since they clearly desire the coming of the period of universal judgment and the resurrection of their bodies, in which they have striven for the Lord's sake... Each soul now has a white robe, when each enjoys his bliss alone. They will then receive two, when the number of their brothers has been filled at the end, and they are gladdened by receiving their own immortal bodies.

And each of them was given a white robe. Now, the souls of the saints have individual robes, rejoicing in their blessed immortality. But when their bodies rise again, according to Isaiah, they will possess double in their land.

And it was told to them that they should rest for a little while longer, etc. The desire for resurrection is not denied, but it is deferred due to the increase of the brethren yet to be gathered. For even the joy of the souls can be symbolized by the white robes, when, with the Lord revealing to them, they learn both that the wicked are to be damned at the end and that many will be joined to their number through martyrdom until the end of the world. Filled with internal charity, they prefer their joy to be deferred until the number of their brethren is completed.

And there were given to them each a white robe.

The white robes are the glory of holy souls; the saints of God now possess individual white robes, because while their bodies rest in the earth, they enjoy the eternal blessedness of the soul alone. They will then receive double robes when, after the resurrection, souls together with bodies will possess without end the glory of the heavenly homeland.

And it was said to them that they should rest yet for a little time, until their fellow servants and their brothers should be fulfilled, who are to be killed as they were.

A little time is the time until the day of judgment; it is called little because, in comparison with the future time, it is very small. Therefore the saints who desire this, that the day of judgment should come, on which they will receive both their bodies and the full reward for their labors, are ordered to wait for a little time, until the number of their brothers is fulfilled; because the day of judgment will not come until the whole number of the elect is complete. But we must inquire why only the souls of those slain for the name of Christ are said to have rested beneath the altar of God and to have received individual robes, when the souls of all the elect rest beneath this altar and likewise possess these same robes. Therefore, by the souls of those slain we must understand not only martyrs, but also all the souls of the righteous; because they too are dead to the world, so that they might live to God, as the Apostle says: “For you have died, and your life is hidden with Christ in God” (Col. 3:3). And he says of himself: “The world has been crucified to me, and I to the world” (Gal. 6:14); and: “All who want to live devoutly in Christ Jesus suffer persecution” (2 Tim. 3:12); and: “Through many tribulations we must enter the kingdom of God” (Acts 14:21). And John, the author of this book, is described as having drunk the cup of the Lord, although he rested without being killed by the sword.

But if anyone with precipitate haste rashly thinks that he can grant remission of sins to all or dares to rescind the precepts of the Lord, not only is this of no advantage to the lapsed but it is even a hindrance. Not to have observed the judgment of the Lord, and to think that his mercy is not first to be implored, but after condemning the Lord to presume on one's own power, is to have provoked his wrath. Under the altar of God the souls of the slain martyrs cry out with a loud voice, saying, "How long, O Lord holy and true, do you refrain from judging and from avenging our blood on those who dwell on earth?" And they are ordered to be quiet and to continue to have patience. Does someone think that anyone can wish to become good by remitting and pardoning sins at random or that he can defend others before he himself is vindicated? The martyrs order something to be done. If just, if lawful, if not contrary to the Lord himself, they are to be done by the priest of God. Let the agreement be ready and easy on the part of the one obeying, if there has been religious moderation on the part of him asking. The martyrs order something to be done. If what they order is not written in the law of the Lord, we must first know, that they have obtained from the Lord what they ask, then do what they order. For what has been assured by man's promise cannot be seen at once to have been granted by the divine majesty.

And a white garment was given to each of them—the clothing of incorruptibility, with which they are to clothe themselves.

Until their companions are also complete—until the fullness of the elect enters. For Paul said: So that they will not be perfected without us.

The Word of God shows that when the time of vengeance comes, conversion will not then help the evil person evade punishment but avenging wrath will destroy him with due damnation. For that will be a time not of remission but of retribution, not of forgiveness but of revenge. This is put off by the divine patience so that the number of the saints can be filled up. The blessed John in the Apocalypse recalls that it is the saints who asked for this vengeance in these words, "How long will it be, holy and true master, before you sit in judgment and avenge our blood on the inhabitants of the earth?" And to teach those who are joined to this company that the time for vengeance is being put off by the highest ordinance, he adds right away. "Each of them was given a white robe, and they were told to be patient a little while longer until the number was filled of their fellow servants and brothers."

Having said these things, they first put on white robes. This was a symbol of being purified by their own blood and of laying aside all impurity.

Then they hear: "rest a little longer, until their fellow servants and their brothers, who were to be killed as they were, should be completed." For it was not just that those who were equal in courage should be hindered from receiving the crowns of martyrdom, which had been taken away prematurely from those whom demons tormented.

We believe that this was revealed to them by the knowledge of divine wisdom, that since the impious will inevitably be punished with eternal punishment and since the fountain of heavenly grace will flow forth unto the end of the world, many will until then be taken into the company of the holy martyrs. And when they received this response, they were filled with an inexpressible joy, which we believe is aptly symbolized by the white robes. Therefore, each one received a white robe, so that through the perfection of love that is poured out into the hearts of believers through the Holy Spirit, they might be content with this consolation and prefer rather to wait for the completion of the number of other brothers.

And I saw when he had opened the sixth seal: there was a great earthquake, and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair: and the moon became as blood. By the earthquake we should understand the last persecution under the Antichrist. It is called great because, according to the Lord's saying, there will then be a tribulation such as has never been, neither shall be. [Matt. 24:21] The sun is Christ, according to this: Unto you that fear God, the Sun of justice shall arise. [Cf. Mal. 4:2] This sun will be darkened for the last people when those who looked as though they were shining in the body of Christ fall into the darkness of overt error. The sun may also indicate the shining life of those who preach. So in the last times the sun will be as sackcloth of hair because the shining life of those who preach will appear rough and despicable in the eyes of the reprobates. Indeed cilice is fit for criminals and sinners. By the moon turned into blood we recognize the holy Church stained in the elect by the blood of suffering. It is said to be entirely stained because no one who remains in the faith of the Mediator will be immune from that last persecution; whence Joel says, The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood: before the great and manifest day doth come. [Variant of Joel 2:31 close to the LXX version, where it is numbered 3:4]

We think that this passage presents a transition from the times of the persecutions to the time before the arrival of the false Christ. For it has been prophesied that at that time there would be such tribulations, such as we know have never happened before. Indeed, throughout the Scriptures "earthquake" often signifies the change of things. The phrase "once again I will shake" signifies "the removal of what is shaken," as the apostle says. And in the Old Testament it is said concerning the crossing of the Israelites from Egypt, "the earth quaked, the heavens poured." The blackness of the sun and the dark, bloody appearance of the moon signify the darkness that will come upon those overtaken by the wrath of God, as Cyril often remarked.

And I saw when He opened the sixth seal, etc. With the opening of the sixth seal, the final persecution is announced, and just as the world was shaken with darkness and fear when the Lord was crucified on the sixth day, it will be so again.

And the sun became black as sackcloth. As if the power of Christ were hidden, or His doctrine temporarily obscured, or as if He were veiled from defense, when the ministers of Antichrist are allowed to attack the servants of Christ.

And the whole moon became like blood. The Church will shed blood for Christ more than usual. He said the whole moon, because the final commotion will be worldwide, whereas previously it was, as written, localized.

And when he had opened the sixth seal.

The opening of the sixth seal refers to the casting down of the Jews, as we have said, and to the calling of the Gentiles. And since Christ spoke much in parables about the destruction of the Jews and the choosing of the Gentiles, he also performed certain acts that signified this; he opened the sixth seal when, for the teachers of the Church, he made clear by the grace of his inspiration the things that he had said and done through figures. He also opened the sixth seal when he fulfilled, in deed, the things he had foretold.

A great earthquake took place.

In this passage the Jews are represented by the earth: a great earthquake took place when this nation was devastated by the Romans.

And the sun became black like a sack made of goat’s hair.

By the sun the same people of the Jews are represented: therefore the sun became black like a sack of goat’s hair, because the Jewish people, who, on account of the knowledge of the one God and the keeping of the Law, shone in the world like the sun among the other nations, became hateful to all men because of their iniquities; for penitents are clothed with sackcloth to show that they are sinners. Therefore the sun took on the blackness of sackcloth, because the crimes of the Jews became known to all the nations.

And the moon became like blood.

The moon has the same meaning as the sun; it signifies the Synagogue. Therefore the moon was seen to have the appearance of blood, because it became evident to all that the Jews were wiped out because of the shedding of the blood of Christ and of his saints.

The sun signifies spiritual combat. In this regard, "the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give her light." When the fight will be between Christ and Antichrist, between the teaching of truth and that of falsity, then "the sun" will become "black as sackcloth of hair," and a certain teacher of truth or superior in truth shall be obscured by errors, while others will stand firm, although they may seem to be darkened in their reputation.

In the martyrs, the Church was slightly obscured, for the moon became as blood; but it was cleansed, and returned to a greater growth. Hence, the Church was enlarged through the martyr's blood. Likewise, in the days of the confessors, it was attacked by heretics; but later, heresy was destroyed in the councils, and the faith of the Church was explained better. Once again, in the days of the virgins, when men had been turned to the flesh, the Holy Spirit impelled the minds of a few to love and serve chastity.

The sixth seal signifies the end, when the Lord will have already risen from the heavens, after the killing that the Antichrist will do.

The breaking of the sixth seal accomplished the perfect completion of our salvation; it destroyed death; it restored life; it crowned the conqueror of mankind, triumphing with confidence according to what is written: "For the only-begotten ascended on high; he led captivity captive; he received gifts among men." (Ps. 68:18: Eph. 4:8)

What then is the sixth seal's opening? It is the cross of the Lord and His death, followed by the prayer of every intellectual and sensible creature, the resurrection and ascension, "which He inaugurated for us a new and living way," the return from death to life through the tearing of "the veil of His flesh" (Heb. 10:20); which benefited not only the living but also those who had gone before.

For the Lord also went and preached to those in Hades who had once disobeyed, according to the divine apostle Peter, (1 Peter 3:19-20) and saved those who believed there, as is also thought by Cyril.

Of which things having happened, a great earthquake occurred, he says, and the sun became black as sackcloth made of hair, and the whole moon became blood, and the stars of the sky fell to the earth, like a fig tree casting its unripe figs when shaken by a strong wind. The vision clearly depicts for us the signs that occurred on the cross: the earthquake and the shaking of the earth (Matt. 27:51), the darkening of the sun, and the entire transformation of the moon into blood.

Indeed, the whole [ὅλη] was added very precisely to the moon; for being nearly full and not divided, it showed the entire suffering on the day of the crucifixion through its entirety. It is customary for the enlightened part for such things to occur during lunar eclipses. And these things the prophet Joel also foretold would happen, saying, "The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and glorious day of the Lord comes." (Joel 2:31)

In the sixth seal we recognize the sixth age of the world. Toward the conclusion of this age the last persecution will come, and it says that the vehement shock of this persecution will shake the whole world like an earthquake. The sun and the moon are Christ and the church. The sun is said to become black, because many will be terrified at the last persecution and will deny them. It says, "Even if our gospel is veiled, it is veiled to those who are perishing, for the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers, so that the brightness of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God, might not shine." And therefore it says, "so that even the elect, if possible, are led into error." In this manner is the sun said to become black, when the power of Christ is hidden, or doctrine is obscured for a time, or defense is delayed when the impious are allowed to attack the saints. And therefore the prophet says, "Shall you leave this unnoticed, that the impious swallows the righteous?" And indeed of Christ himself we read, "Behold, this child is set for the fall and resurrection of many, and for a sign that is spoken against." In him some make progress; others, turning away from him, incur ruin. "The moon turned to blood." It is usually foretold that the church will shed more blood for Christ when the great outbreak of persecutions occurs. Therefore, this speaks of her own blood, not the blood of another as was the case with the red horse, which was described as red with another's blood.

"And I saw, when he had opened the sixth seal, there was a great earthquake." In the sixth seal, then, was a great earthquake: this is that very last persecution.

"And the sun became black as sackcloth of hair." The sun becomes as sackcloth; that is, the brightness of doctrine will be obscured by unbelievers.

"And the entire moon became as blood." By the moon of blood is set forth the Church of the saints as pouring out her blood for Christ.

And the stars of heaven fell upon the earth, as the fig tree casteth its green figs when it is shaken by a great wind. Heaven is the Church of the saints, which, as it contains countless lives of saints, shines in the night of this life as if stars were radiating light on it from above. Therefore the stars falling from heaven upon the earth mean those who seem to stick to the faith or works of the saints rushing down to the iniquity of overt error out of love for the earth. This is also what is meant by the fig tree casting its green figs, for when all the Church is shaken by the last persecution, it is as if a fig tree were shaken by a great wind. Furthermore, another translation has "bitter green fig."

"The stars fell." As has been already written of those deceived by Antiochus, this refers also to those who think themselves to be lights of the world but who will fall, being crushed by the events of that time, as the Lord said, "to lead astray, if it were possible, even the elect by the great tribulation." This is perhaps the reason the fig tree is taken as a parable, for when the wind of the devil shakes it, it casts down its immature fruit that is not yet ripened by the heat of temptations or made sweet by grace. We know that this can be understood in either a good or in a bad sense, whether from the two baskets of good and evil figs that appear in Jeremiah or from the fig tree that Christ made to wither and that mentioned in the Song. But whether these things will occur in a visible manner when Christ comes in glory as judge, only he knows who has the hidden treasures of wisdom and knowledge.

And the stars fell to the earth, etc. Those who shine outwardly in the Church, driven by the wind of the final persecution, will be shown to have been earthly. Their deeds are rightly compared to the gross, immature, useless, and perishable fruits of the fig tree.

And the stars fell upon the earth, as a fig tree casts its unripe figs when it is shaken by a great wind.

By the stars are signified the leaders of the priests, the scribes, and the Pharisees; by the fig tree, however, we can understand the land of the Jews; and the unripe figs of the same tree are called useless fruits, which quickly fall when that same tree is shaken by the wind. Therefore the fig tree was shaken by the wind and cast out its useless fruits from itself, because the land of the Jews was invaded by the Romans, and drove out from itself the useless nation, hateful to God, so that it might become a dwelling place for the faithful. Therefore the stars fell to the earth like unripe figs, because the same punishment overtook those who, through the teaching of the Law, shone among the people like stars, as it did the rest of the multitude.

The stars of the sky fell to the earth, it is said, happened either by chance and was perceptible; if not, the account suggests that the heavenly light ceased, and everything was darkened (Luke 23:44-45, Matt. 27:45, Mark 15:33).

"And the stars too shall fall from heaven, even as a fig-tree casteth her green figs when she is shaken of a mighty wind." "The mountains shall melt like wax at the presence of the Lord; " that is, "when He riseth to shake terribly the earth.

The stars signify those in the church who for a time seem, according to human opinion, to stand out from the number of the elect, but who, when the fury of a sharp persecution comes near, are said to fall from their high status as though from heaven. The Lord foretold this in the Gospel, saying, "For then there will be tribulation such as has never been or shall be. And unless those days had been shortened, no flesh would have been saved. But for the sake of the elect, those days will be shortened." The tree represents the church, and the sour fruit, which another translation calls "unripened," represents people. The winds are the turbulent turmoil of persecution by which people are shaken and fall from the church. And it is proper that they are compared with the unripened fruit of the fig tree. For they are either unfaithful and, "twisted like a deceitful bow," prefer this to the faith that they have abandoned, or because of the immaturity of the time the church suffers in them a tearful miscarriage, although it had sought for a happy birth at their conception.

"And the stars fell to the earth." The falling of the stars are the faithful who are troubled for Christ's sake.

"Even as a fig-tree casteth her untimely figs." The fig-tree, when shaken, loses its untimely figs-when men are separated from the Church by persecution.

And the heaven departed as a book folded up. Just as the reprobates fall from the Church not physically but through their transgressions, so does the same Church, in its elect, depart from among the wicked not by a physical departure but by faith and work. Moreover it is right for the Church to be represented by a book, because it contains in itself the commandments for all heavenly life, not only written on parchments with a pen, but also written on the fleshly tablets of the heart by the Spirit of God. Note also that the book is said to be folded up, for just as no one can see what a folded-up book contains except those for whom it is voluntarily opened, so does the Church of the elect, in time of persecution, shut its innermost parts for strangers and discreetly open them inside for its people. And every mountain, and the islands were moved out of their places. By the mountains we should understand men of very high dignity who surpass others in words and virtues, about whom it is said, I have lifted up my eyes to the mountains. [Ps. 120:1] By the islands we understand people of lesser justice who still waver in tribulations. So the fact that mountains and islands are said to have been moved out of their places is related to the above interpretation in which the Church of the saints departs by faith and work from the company of the wicked; for a familiarity with the wicked it was mixed with was a little like its place.

That heaven is rolled out as a scroll symbolizes either that the second coming of Christ is unknown … or that even the heavenly powers grieve for those who have fallen from faith as though they experience a certain rolling out through sympathy and grief. However, this image symbolizes also that the substance of heaven does not disappear, but as though by a kind of unrolling changes into something better. As Irenaeus says, "For neither is the substance nor the essence of the creation annihilated—for faithful and true is he who has established it—but 'the fashion of this world passes away,' within which the transgression occurred, as the elders say." … We think that the apostle is using the image of an old custom. For the Hebrews used scrolls rather than codices, which are common among us. To unroll a scroll did not cause anything to disappear but affected the appearance of that written within. So also the opening of the heavenly body shows the revelation of the blessing that lies in wait for the saints.

Our Lord asked the disciples concerning the destruction of the temple and the consummation of the world, and as they were able to receive, he foretold of the coming events. To some extent these events have already happened to the Jews who killed Christ during the siege under Vespasian and Titus, as the Jew Josephus recounts it. But at the end, with a superabundance beyond everything, so to speak, these things will come upon the world at the coming of the antichrist. At that time, the great men, whether those who hold office in the church or those who possess worldly power—here figuratively called "mountains"—and the churches of the faithful—metaphorically called "islands"—which are being renewed to God, as Isaiah said, they will flee from their places, changing from place to place on account of the false christ.

And the sky receded like a scroll being rolled up. Just as a rolled-up scroll contains mysteries within but nothing apparent outside, so will the Church, known only to its own, retreat discreetly to avoid persecution, hidden from outsiders.

And every mountain and island was moved from its place. Mentioning various members of the Church according to their roles or strengths, he predicts that none will be exempt from this upheaval, but the movement will differ—good people will avoid by fleeing, while the wicked will be driven by following.

And the heaven withdrew like a book that is rolled up.

By “heaven” the Old Testament is signified; when a book is rolled up, its writing is hidden from the eyes of those who look at it. Therefore the book is rolled up for the Jews, because they were unwilling to understand the spiritual meaning in the Old Testament that pointed to Christ. Therefore the heaven withdrew like a rolled-up book, because the Old Testament abandoned the Jews and passed over to the Gentiles.

And every mountain and island were moved from their places.

And since the land of the Jews is mountainous, we can understand by the mountains those who lived in the cities, and by the islands those who lived in the countryside. They were moved from their places, because all were either exterminated or led away into captivity.

For at that time the trumpet shall sound, and awake those that sleep from the lowest parts of the earth, righteous and sinners alike. And every kindred, and tongue, and nation, and tribe shall be raised in the twinkling of an eye; and they shall stand upon the face of the earth, waiting for the coming of the righteous and terrible Judge, in fear and trembling unutterable. For the river of fire shall come forth in fury like an angry sea, and shall burn up mountains and hills, and shall make the sea vanish, and shall dissolve the atmosphere with its heat like wax. The stars of heaven shall fall, the sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood. The heaven shall be rolled together like a scroll: the whole earth shall be burnt up by reason of the deeds done in it, which men did corruptly, in fornications, in adulteries, and in lies and uncleanness, and in idolatries, and in murders, and in battles. For there shall be the new heaven and the new earth.

The sky is described as departed like a scroll being rolled up. Through the sky, the heavenly powers of the angels are mentioned, who themselves were disturbed, unable to bear the insult to their master, both here and there. The sky is said to be torn apart like a scroll being unrolled and shaken.

It is also said that every mountain and island moved from their places. Mountains and islands are called the ranks [τάγματα] of the high-minded spirits, according to what is written about them; "and mountains can be moved within the hearts of the seas." (Ps. 45:3) He also says that islands themselves rise up and are lifted by the vain vanity of their intellect in the unstable and salty distractions of this life. (see Isa. 23:2-6.)

Besides, the belief that everything was made from nothing will be impressed upon us by that ultimate dispensation of God which will bring back all things to nothing. For "the very heaven shall be rolled together as a scroll; '" nay, it shall come to nothing along with the earth itself, with which it was made in the beginning.

Rightly does he suggest that the heaven, that is, the church, withdrew like a scroll rolled out rather than as a scroll rolled up. For whatever is rolled up cannot ever be known by anyone, while that which is rolled out is uncovered ever more. And so when these things have been made manifest, [the church] withdraws and prudently avoids persecution, so that concealed from those outside she might not be seen. But through the unity of the Spirit she is wholly known to herself—that is, to her own to whom it is given to believe. And [the church] is cautious towards those who are not known and toward the stranger, and she hides herself through a spirit of discretion, lest becoming known she be betrayed. Therefore, John wrote, "Do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are of God."

The church is also symbolized in the mountains and in the islands, for she is a "city set on a hill" on account of "the mountains round about." And we read, "also among the islands of the sea [is] the name of the Lord God of Israel" which foretells that impelled by persecution she will be moved from her place. This is to be applied to both parts [of the church], among the good she is cautious and is moved by flight, among the evil she is moved by a perverse will and is turned into something worse, as it is said, "I shall move your candlestick from its place."

"And the heaven withdrew as a scroll that is rolled up." For the heaven to be rolled away, that is, that the Church shall be taken away.

"And every mountain and the islands were moved from their places." Mountains and islands removed from their places intimate that in the last persecution all men departed from their places; that is, that the good will be removed, seeking to avoid the persecution.

And the kings of the earth, and the princes, and tribunes, and the rich, and the strong, and every bondman, and every freeman, hid themselves in the dens and in the rocks of mountains. The kings are those who govern themselves well. Likewise for the princes, who do not resist vices as well as the kings, but still do so as they can. Likewise, the tribunes have still less power than the princes, but they too nonetheless resist the Devil as they can. By the rich he means the rich in virtues, not in possessions; and by the strong also he means not the strong in body, but in mind. So these people, in the last persecution, presuming nothing of their virtues, hide themselves in the caves and dens of mountains because they seek the intercessions of saints, who are rightly called mountains because they are high in virtues and look down on earthly things, and rightly called rocks because they are strong, as they are necessarily strengthened in Christ, who is a rock. Hence the Lord says in the Gospel, Then they that are in Judea, let them flee to the mountains; [Matt. 24:16] and Solomon, The rabbit, a weak people, maketh its bed in the rock; [Variant of Prov. 30:26] and Isaiah says, They shall go into the holes of rocks, and into the caves of the earth from the face of the strength of the Lord, and from the glory of his majesty, when he shall rise up to strike the earth. [Variant of Is. 2:19] He even tells us that one should do so, saying, Enter thou into the rock, and hide thee in a pit in the ground. [Ibid. 10] These things may also mean heavenly virtues, according to what we read in the book of Job: She abideth among the rocks, and dwelleth among cragged flints, and stony hills, where there is no access. [Job 39:28] But let us hear what the fleeing people say to either the angels or the saints.

"The kings of the earth," that is, those who exert power over it and possess nothing in heaven, they too shall pray with all the great and rich and with the servants of the things below and those free of the service of Christ, that they be hidden by the caves and the rocks and the mountains. For they do not want to experience the divine wrath that with divine consent will pour down upon them either at the coming of the antichrist in the form of punishments from famine and other plagues or in endless torments which are expected after the resurrection.

And the kings of the earth and the great men and the commanders. We understand kings as powerful people. He means to encompass every rank and condition. Besides, who but the persecutor will be kings then?

They hid in caves and among the rocks of the mountains, etc. When the weaker ones seek to be strengthened by the examples of the high ones in the Church, to be fortified by their advice, and to be protected by their warnings and prayers, they figuratively ask these mountains to fall on them through their compassionate affection. For the high mountains are a refuge for the deer, and the rocks a shelter for the hedgehogs (Ps. 104:18).

And the kings of the earth, and the princes, and the tribunes, and the rich, and the strong, and every slave and free person hid themselves in caves and in the rocks of the mountains, and they say to the mountains: Fall upon us, and hide us from the face of the One who sits upon the throne, and from the wrath of the Lamb; for the great day of their wrath has come, and who will be able to stand?

By the kings of the earth, the princes and the tribunes, those who seemed to rule this people, we can understand: by the rich and the strong, the slaves and the free, the rest of the multitude. How they hid themselves in caves and in the rocks of the mountains, Josephus clearly relates, who describes the destruction of Jerusalem (Josephus, The Jewish War 6.11). For such was the affliction that, being consumed by long-lasting famine, and oppressed by enemies from without and, much worse, by bandits from within, they hid themselves in wells and sewers and in certain hidden places in the earth, desiring to die, so that they might end their long misery by the short cut of death.

This signifies that the whole world, among the good and the saints, is going to find refuge in the church, so that made firm under [the church's] protection it is able to endure unto eternal life, with the help of our Lord Jesus Christ, who lives and reigns forever and ever. Amen.

And, he says, the kings of the earth and the great men and the commanders and the rich and the powerful and every slave and free man hid themselves in the caves and among the rocks of the mountains; and they said to the mountains and to the rocks, "Fall on us and hide us from the face of Him who sits on the throne and from the wrath of the Lamb, for the great day of their wrath has come, and who can stand?" Kings again and great men, commanders and the rich and powerful, he calls wretched demons, as those who began to oppress the earth through violence and deceit; but slaves and free men, those who excel among the demons and are subject to them.

As for hiding themselves in caves and in the rocks of the mountains, and yet saying, "You will fall upon us and hide us," this is spoken figuratively; it hints at fugitives attempting to escape the punishment imposed on them by Christ. For if an invisible punishment and retribution were not inflicted upon them, what is the meaning of what was said by the prophet Isaiah concerning Christ's presence: "I have trodden the winepress alone, and among the nations there is no man with me; I have trampled them in my anger, and crushed them in my wrath, and their blood I have poured out upon the earth"? (Isa. 63:2-3) And what is the meaning of calling the God-hated [θεοστυγεῖς] demons by Matthew: "What have we to do with you, Son of God? Have you come to torment us?" (Matt. 8:29) But one might understand that these things spoken in the Revelation are not only the sufferings of demons, but also of the lawless Jews who crucified the Lord on the cross, who, being oppressed by the war against the Romans, became fugitives in the mountains and caves and the clefts of the earth, and were everywhere tormented by distress and anguish.

And they say to the mountains and the rocks: Fall upon us, and hide us from the face of him that sitteth upon the throne and from the wrath of the Lamb. As if they were overtly saying, "Bend your hearts with mercy, and protect us from the wrath of the judge with kind intercessions. Do not hide us from his face when he is having mercy, but hide us from his face when he is angry." As for why they are so terrified, they also say it afterwards:

And hide us from the face of Him who sits on the throne and from the wrath of the Lamb. So that He may find us not as reprobates, but stable in faith when He comes, with our sins covered by the intercession of the saints and the mercy of God.

And knowing that they were suffering these things for their crimes, and that after death they would endure the torments of hell [inferni], they desired to be crushed by the mountains under which they were hiding and to be concealed from the face of God and from the face of His Christ, whom they knew they had gravely offended. For the Lord also, when He was being led to His Passion, foretold to the women who were lamenting Him that they would suffer these things, saying: Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children; for behold, days will come when they will say: Blessed are the barren, those who have not borne, and the breasts that have not nursed! Then they will begin to say to the mountains: Fall upon us; and to the hills: Cover us. For if they do these things in the green wood, what will happen in the dry? (Luke 23:28-31). He calls Himself the green wood, but them the dry wood, as if He had said: If they do these things to me, who am wood according to my humanity, but green according to my divinity, that is, who am God and man; what will happen to those who are dry wood, that is, who do not have the greenness of faith? It is understood: they will perish in the worst way. And the fig tree which the Lord, before His Passion, by cursing made dry because He found no fruit on it (Matt. 21:19), signified those same Jews, whom He condemned with a perpetual curse, because He found no fruit of faith in them.

For the great day of his wrath is come, and who shall be able to stand? As if they were saying, "If even a saint is terrified by the wrath of that God, who of us shall hold out?" We may disregard all that has been said about saints, and understand those things as referring to the reprobates: the mountains are the proud; the islands are the greedy (according to this: Be silent, you that dwell in the island, the merchants of Sidon); [Is. 23:2] the kings, princes, and tribunes represent the reprobates according to their qualities; by the rich he means those who need no help from others to do evil; by the strong he means the strong at drunkenness; [Ref. to Is. 5:22] by bondman he means bondman of sin; by freeman he means free of justice. There is no doubt that when the future judgment is imminent, all these will run to seek the help of demons as they are desperate and do not dare to come to any of the saints. This is indeed what is meant by their seeking hiding places in the dens and rocks of mountains; but how will demons defend others from the furious wrath when they will be the first ones to receive it? Finally, all this inspires listeners with great fear even if taken literally, but this is not a reason to violently reduce figurative statements to their literal meaning.

For then the divine anger will burn righteously as a furnace, consuming those who built upon the foundation of faith with wood and chaff and stubble, as though food for the fire.

And who will be able to stand? Certainly, the one who now strives to watch, to stand firm in faith, and to act manfully. If you interpret this earthquake literally as referring to the very day of judgment, it is not surprising that earthly kings and princes, fearful of the holy mountains, seek refuge, as we read has already happened in the case of the rich man clothed in purple and the poor Lazarus.